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Science · Milk

Milk and milk drinks

What milk is made of, how a steam wand turns it into foam, why fat and temperature change that foam, how plant-based drinks compare in measurements, and what milk does to coffee in the cup.

Across the chain: Science

Source-checkedby Coffearium verification pass· Last source-checked 27 Oct 2026· Prepared with AI assistance· 13 sources (12 tier A)· 1 contested· Updated 27 Oct 2026· Literature last searched 27 Oct 2026
Reading depth
Contents
  • Steam injection draws air into milk and heats it; studies steamed milk to 65–70 °C.5,6
  • Milk proteins adsorb at the bubble surfaces and hold the foam; caseins were enriched in steamed foam relative to whey proteins in one study.4
  • Lipids can impair milk foams, particularly where milk fat is partly crystalline, as at about 20 °C; free fatty acids strongly impair foaming.3
  • In 27 plant-based drinks sold in Switzerland, foam height at room temperature ranged from 41.5 to 173 mm, against 134.8 mm for milk.1
  • In EU law, “milk” means only the normal mammary secretion; purely plant-based products may not be called milk, with listed exceptions.13

What milk brings to coffee#

Milk is mostly water with fat, protein and sugar. Two Swiss whole milks listed 3.5–3.7 g fat, 3.2–3.5 g protein and 4.9–5.0 g carbohydrate per 100 mL.1 These values come from the packaging.1 Its sugar is lactose.2

Milk protein comes in two groups. Caseins form casein micelles.2 Of the whey proteins, two, β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin, make up about 80%.2 Caseins resist heat far better than whey proteins.2 Both groups matter for foam, as the next sections show.

In the cup, milk proteins bind some coffee compounds, and milk changes how the coffee is liked.9,10 The section “Milk in the cup” covers the evidence. How hot milk drinks are served is covered in serving temperature.

How steam makes foam#

Steam injection is the usual way to foam milk in coffee shops.5 A steam wand on the espresso machine blows steam into cold milk. Two things happen at once: air is drawn in, and the milk heats up.5,6

The air enters in different ways depending on the nozzle. In one design, the steam jet drags a thin layer of air into the milk at its surface.6 In others, the expanding steam creates a vacuum that sucks air in.6 Studies stopped steaming at about 65–70 °C.5,6 The steam also condenses into the milk. One study estimated that each foaming added about 4–6% water by volume.4

Proteins hold the bubbles. They move to the surface between air and liquid and form a film around each bubble.4 Caseins, which lack a rigid folded structure, reach the surface quickly.4 Whey proteins can form a stiff film there.4 In a 2024 study, steamed foam held more caseins than whey proteins, relative to the milk.4

152463
  1. Air bubble. Air drawn in by the steam jet.6
  2. Liquid film. Thin layer of milk between two bubbles; liquid drains out of it.4,6
  3. Protein layer. Caseins and whey proteins adsorbed at the bubble surface.4
  4. Fat globule. Fat can disturb the protein film; free fatty acids strongly impair foaming.3,5
  5. Merging bubbles. Bubbles join when the film between them breaks (coalescence).4
  6. Drained milk. Liquid collects below the foam as it drains.6
A milk foam in section, with the protein layer enlarged. Schematic, not to scale.

Foam does not last. In one study, steamed foams lost about half their volume in 10 min.4 Liquid drains out of the films, and bubbles merge.4 Hygiene of steam wands and milk systems is covered in espresso machine care.

Fat, heat and foam#

Fat can work against foam. A 2010 review states that lipids can harm both the formation and the stability of milk foams.3 The effect is particularly marked when milk fat is partly solid, as at about 20 °C.3 Products of fat breakdown, such as free fatty acids, strongly impair foaming.3

Temperature changes the picture. According to the review, skim milk foams can be very stable when formed at about 40–50 °C.3 A 2012 Wageningen report found no link between fat content and foaming at about 56 °C.7 It notes that milk fat holds no crystals at that temperature.7 The studies disagree on how much fat matters; the Deep dive compares them.

Too much heat has costs. A 2024 study warns that steaming can overheat milk and strongly denature its proteins.4 The main whey proteins begin to denature at about 70 °C.2 Steaming to 65–70 °C, as in the studies, stays close to that threshold.2,5,6

Plant-based drinks#

Drinks made from soy, oat, almond and other plants are used in coffee in place of milk.12 In the European Union they may not be sold as “milk”; the Deep dive gives the rule.13

They differ widely in protein. A Swiss study listed the packaging values of 27 plant-based drinks.1 Soy drinks held 3.0–4.0 g protein per 100 mL, close to milk.1 Oat drinks held 0.3–0.6 g, almond drinks 0.0–1.5 g.1

00.511.522.533.544.5g/100 mLCow’s milk (2)3.2–3.51 Soy (7)3.0–4.01 Coconut (3)0.1–1.71 Almond (4)0.0–1.51 Cashew (2)1.0–1.21 Spelt (1)0.81 Oat (4)0.3–0.61 Rice (5)<0.5–0.51 Hemp (1)0.01
Data table
Pointg/100 mLSource
Cow’s milk (2)3.2–3.53.2–3.51
Soy (7)3.0–4.03–41
Coconut (3)0.1–1.70.1–1.71
Almond (4)0.0–1.50–1.51
Cashew (2)1.0–1.21–1.21
Spelt (1)0.80.81
Oat (4)0.3–0.60.3–0.61
Rice (5)<0.5–0.50.51
Hemp (1)0.001
Protein in 27 plant-based drinks and two cow’s milks sold in Switzerland, from packaging. Each span covers the products of one base; “<0.5” values are drawn at 0.5.1

Their foams differ just as widely. The same study measured foam height after blowing air into each drink.1 At room temperature, plant-based drinks reached 41.5–173 mm; milk reached 134.8 mm.1 Some plant-based drinks foamed as well as milk or better.1 No study consulted for this entry measured steamed foams of named oat, soy and almond drinks side by side.

04080120160200240mmPlant-based drinks, roomtemperature41.5–1731 Cow’s milk, roomtemperature134.81 Plant-based drinks, 60 °C50.9–203.61 Cow’s milk, 60 °C179.31
Data table
PointmmSource
Plant-based drinks, room temperature41.5–17341.5–1731
Cow’s milk, room temperature134.8134.81
Plant-based drinks, 60 °C50.9–203.650.9–203.61
Cow’s milk, 60 °C179.3179.31
Initial foam height of 27 plant-based drinks (range) and of cow’s milk at room temperature and at 60 °C. Foamed by blowing air into the drink in a laboratory analyser.1 Not a steam wand.

Milk in the cup#

Milk proteins bind coffee compounds. In a 2012 laboratory study, adding milk to coffee at once lowered the free chlorogenic acids, because they bound to milk proteins.9 Casein bound 5-caffeoylquinic acid strongly.9 After simulated digestion, however, more chlorogenic acids were bioaccessible in coffee with milk than without, and the increase depended on the milk’s fat content.9

Milk also changes flavour. In a 2021 study, 116 coffee drinkers tasted filter coffee with dairy milk, soy, almond or oat drink.10 The coffee with milk was liked more than the coffee with oat drink.10 Liking rose when people perceived sweetness; grassy, earthy, beany and sour notes lowered it.10

Drink names vary by place and are not standardised in the sources consulted. One 2023 study describes a traditional cappuccino as 25 mL espresso with 100 mL steam-foamed milk.8 No official cappuccino specification was consulted for this entry. The drinks and their history are covered in coffee drinks around the world and espresso.

Proteins at the bubble surface#

Foam formation depends on how fast proteins reach and cover a new air–water surface. A 2024 study attributes the speed of caseins to their lack of tertiary structure.4 Whey proteins, with disulphide bridges and a tertiary structure, can form a highly rigid interfacial film.4 In that study, reconstituted skim milk at 1.5–15% solids was steamed up to four times. Foam fractions were more enriched with α-, β- and κ-casein than with whey proteins.4

Protein concentration mattered less than expected. Between 1.5% and 15% solids, foamability and foam stability did not differ significantly.4,5 The same group found that dispersions of skim milk powder gave about 16 times more foam by mechanical mixing than whole milk powder and whole milk at 0.5% protein.5 Adding milk powders or protein concentrate to whole milk did not change its foaming.5 The authors conclude that foaming performance depended on the ratio of protein to fat.5

Heat treatment of the milk may matter too. In a 2023 study, β-lactoglobulin was absent from the UHT (ultra-high-temperature) milk analysed.8 The authors suggest this could be one factor in the poor stability and consistency of the foams made with that milk.8

Steam injection: pressure and nozzle#

A steam wand foams and heats at the same time; the process is not isothermal.6 In a 2015 study, semi-skimmed milk was foamed with steam at 100–280 kPa gauge through three nozzle designs.6 Steam was injected until the milk reached about 70 °C.6 Confined-jet and ejector nozzles draw air in by the vacuum of expanding steam. A plunging jet entrains a thin layer of air at its surface.6

Pressure changed the foam, but the effect depended on the nozzle.6 Bubble size rose linearly with steam pressure for every nozzle.6 With the plunging jet, foams made at 100 kPa drained 92% of their liquid in 2 min; foams made at 280 kPa drained nearly 80%.6 The plunging jet at 180–280 kPa gave the best combination of small bubbles, stability and stiffness.6

Condensed steam dilutes the milk. In the 2024 re-foaming study, each steam foaming added about 4–6% (v/v), estimated from volume differences.4 An earlier study cited there gave 10–12% by mass.4 Steamed foams lost 45.50–57.65% of their volume in 10 min across solids levels and repeated foamings.4 In a related study, about 60% of the initial foam volume collapsed within 10 min, particularly fast in whole milk foams.5

Heat: denaturation and other changes#

β-Lactoglobulin (about 60% of whey proteins) and α-lactalbumin (about 20%) begin to denature at about 70 °C, according to a 2021 review.2 Caseins are much more heat-stable.2 Heat also converts some lactose into lactulose, which is absent from raw milk.2

A 2023 study steamed milk at 110 kPa gauge with the steam wand of a two-group espresso machine to 40–80 °C.8 Activity of the milk enzyme lactoperoxidase stayed constant up to about 55 °C and then slowly fell.8 The 2024 re-foaming study did not test foaming above 65 °C.4 No study consulted for this entry measured how perceived sweetness changes with steaming temperature.

Lipids and foam stability#

According to the 2010 review, phospholipids, free fatty acids and partial glycerides strongly impair foaming of milk.3 Free fatty acids and other partial breakdown products form when lipases break down milk fat.5 In the 2012 Wageningen report, added linoleic acid, a free fatty acid, reduced foaming.7 Fat can also disrupt the links between proteins in the film.5

The state of the fat matters. The review names partly crystalline fat, as at about 20 °C, as particularly detrimental.3 The Wageningen report states that no fat crystals that could pierce the fat globule membrane exist at about 56 °C. It recommends foaming above 40 °C.7 It used an automatic milk frother, not a steam wand.7 At that temperature, semi-skimmed (1.93% fat) and whole milk (4.7%) of one brand showed no significant difference in foamability or foam stability.7 The report’s conclusions add that this whole milk seemed to give somewhat more stable foams.77

Reference values#

Parameter Value reported Conditions Source
Fat · protein · carbohydrate, cow’s milk 3.5–3.7 · 3.2–3.5 · 4.9–5.0 g/100 mL Two Swiss UHT whole milks; packaging Kopf-Bolanz et al.1
Main whey proteins β-lactoglobulin ≈60%, α-lactalbumin ≈20% of whey protein Bovine milk Deeth2
Whey protein denaturation begins ≈70 °C β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin Deeth2
Very stable skim milk foams Formed at ≈40–50 °C Review Huppertz3
Lipids particularly detrimental Partly crystalline fat, e.g. 20 °C Review Huppertz3
Steaming end temperature 65 °C · ≈70 °C Lab steam wand; 100–280 kPa gauge Ho et al.5, Jimenez-Junca et al.6
Steam pressure tested 100–280 kPa gauge · 110 kPa gauge Three nozzles · two-group espresso machine Jimenez-Junca et al.6, Santini et al.8
Water added by steam ≈4–6% (v/v) per foaming Estimated from volume Ho et al.4
Foam volume lost in 10 min 45.50–57.65% Steamed reconstituted skim milk, 1.5–15% solids Ho et al.4
Liquid drained in 2 min 92% · nearly 80% Plunging jet at 100 · 280 kPa Jimenez-Junca et al.6
Lactoperoxidase activity Constant up to ≈55 °C Steamed milk Santini et al.8
Foam height, plant-based drinks 41.5–173 mm (room temperature); 50.9–203.6 mm (60 °C) 27 UHT drinks; air sparging, 50 mL Kopf-Bolanz et al.1
Foam height, milk 134.8 mm (room temperature); 179.3 mm (60 °C) Same method Kopf-Bolanz et al.1
Casein binding of 5-caffeoylquinic acid KD 37.9 ± 2.3 µmol/L In vitro Tagliazucchi et al.9

Plant-based drinks: what was measured#

The Swiss study foamed 50 mL of each drink by blowing air through a filter at 0.3 L/min for 30 s.1 It read the foam height in a dynamic foam analyser at room temperature and at 60 °C.1 This is a standard laboratory test, not steam injection, so results may differ from a steam wand.

Two composition factors tracked foam at 60 °C. Protein concentration correlated positively with initial foam height.1 So did the phytic acid content; the authors call this their main finding.1 At 60 °C, foam heights ranged from 50.9 to 203.6 mm, against 179.3 mm for milk.1 The composition values in the study came from packaging, not analysis.1

Stability in hot coffee is a separate question. A 2025 review reports an earlier study in which soy drink–coffee mixtures separated into two layers above about 60 °C.12 Cooling or raising the share of soy drink reversed the separation.12 Mixtures with 5–10% (w/w) soy drink were the most prone to separate.12 The original study was not consulted for this entry.

In the 2021 consumer study, coffee with 1% dairy milk scored 6.0 for overall liking on a 9-point scale. Almond scored 5.7, soy 5.3 and oat 5.2.10 Oat scored significantly lower than milk.10 Milk was associated with sweet and vanilla notes, almond and soy with bitter, sour, grassy and pungent notes.10

Coffee and milk: chemistry and perception#

In the 2012 in vitro study, milk was added to coffee and the mixture digested with pepsin and pancreatin.9 Milk immediately lowered the chlorogenic acids that passed a 3 kDa filter, because they bound to proteins.9 Casein bound 5-caffeoylquinic acid with a dissociation constant of 37.9 ± 2.3 µmol/L.9 After digestion, 86–94% of the bound chlorogenic acids stayed in the high-molecular-weight fraction.9 Chlorogenic acids are covered in their own entry.

According to a sensory science textbook chapter, milk quality changed the sensory profile of coffee with a dash of milk.11 Double-homogenised milk with less fat and smaller fat globules raised the coffee-related attributes; milk with added casein lowered them.11 In a sorting study the chapter describes, latte samples were grouped only by whether the coffee’s intensity showed through the milk.11 No source consulted for this entry measured how milk and foam change body; body and mouthfeel has its own entry.

The word “milk” in EU law#

Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 reserves the term: “milk” means exclusively the normal mammary secretion obtained from one or more milkings, without addition or extraction. This wording was consulted as quoted by the Court of Justice of the European Union in its 2017 judgment in Case C-422/16 (TofuTown), not in the regulation itself.13 The Court ruled that a purely plant-based product may not be marketed as “milk”, even with words that state its plant origin.13 Exceptions are products listed in Annex I to Commission Decision 2010/791/EU.13 Rules outside the EU were not consulted for this entry.

Open questions#

  • Casein, whey and foam. Earlier studies reviewed in a 2024 paper disagree on whether casein-rich or whey-rich milk gives more and more stable foam.4
  • Steam versus laboratory foaming. Plant-based drinks were compared by air sparging; no study consulted for this entry compared them with a steam wand.1
  • Temperature and sweetness. No study consulted for this entry measured how steaming temperature changes perceived sweetness or lactose.
  • Milk, foam and body. No study consulted for this entry measured how milk foam changes the perceived body of a milk drink.
  • Drink definitions. No official specification for cappuccino, flat white or latte was consulted; the one recipe given here is a study’s description.8

Key studies#

Jimenez-Junca et al., 2015 – Steam pressure and nozzle design. Foamed semi-skimmed milk with steam at 100–280 kPa through three nozzle types and measured foamability, drainage, bubble size and stiffness. Bubble size rose with pressure for every nozzle; a plunging jet at 180–280 kPa gave small bubbles and stable, stiff foams.

Journal of Food Engineering 166, 247–254 · doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.05.035

Ho et al., 2024 – Re-foaming steamed milk. Foamed reconstituted skim milk at five solids levels up to four times, by steam and by mixing. Foaming properties did not change with solids or re-foaming, steam added water each time, and the foam was enriched in caseins.

International Journal of Dairy Technology 77(3), 874–883 · doi:10.1111/1471-0307.13074

Kopf-Bolanz et al., 2023 – Plant-based drinks and milk. Compared 27 plant-based drinks from Swiss shops with two UHT milks for particle size, colour, viscosity and foam. Foam heights varied widely; some drinks foamed as well as milk, and protein and phytic acid correlated with foam height at 60 °C.

Agrarforschung Schweiz 14, 43–56 · doi:10.34776/afs14-43e

Tagliazucchi et al., 2012 – Milk binds coffee chlorogenic acids. Digested coffee with different milks in vitro and measured chlorogenic acids. Milk bound part of them at once through its proteins; casein bound 5-caffeoylquinic acid with high affinity.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60(44), 11056–11064 · doi:10.1021/jf302694a

Contested
  • Fat content and foaming: a 2010 review states that lipids can be detrimental to milk foams, particularly where milk fat is partly crystalline (about 20 °C)3; a 2024 study found that dispersions of skim milk powder gave about 16 times more foam by mechanical mixing than whole milk at the same protein level5; a 2012 Wageningen report found no correlation between fat content and foaming in semi-skimmed and whole milks frothed at about 56 °C.7 Foaming methods, temperatures and milks differ.
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Change log

  • – The EU definition of “milk” is now cited to the 2017 Court of Justice judgment that reproduces it; the separate Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 source was removed and the text says the regulation itself was not consulted. Reason: The regulation's wording had been read only in the judgment, so citing EUR-Lex for it overstated what was consulted.
  • – Fat and foam statements narrowed: “in most studies” and “strongest”/“most harmful” replaced by the review's own wording (“can”, “particularly”); the Wageningen comparison of semi-skimmed and whole milk now also gives its conclusion that the whole milk seemed to foam somewhat more stably; that report's frother is no longer called electric. Reason: The statements were stronger than the 2010 review abstract and the 2012 report.
  • – Added the 2012 in vitro study's main result that after simulated digestion more chlorogenic acids were bioaccessible with milk than without, depending on fat content. Reason: Reporting only the immediate binding gave a one-sided account of the study.
  • – Consumer study: almond and soy are now associated with bitter, sour, grassy and pungent notes (not “beany”); a 2023 study's machine is described as a two-group espresso machine, not a bar machine. Reason: Matches the sources' wording.

Sources

  1. AKopf-Bolanz, K. A.; Villarreal Cruz, M. C.; Walther, B.; Denkel, C.; Guggisberg, D. (2023). Comparison of physicochemical properties of commercial UHT-treated plant-based beverages and cow’s milk. Agrarforschung Schweiz 14, 43–56. doi:10.34776/afs14-43e · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; 27 UHT plant-based drinks from Swiss retailers and two UHT whole milks (3.5% fat); lab foam analyser (50 mL, air sparging 0.3 L/min for 30 s) at room temperature and 60 °C; composition from packaging..
  2. ADeeth, H. C. (2021). Effects of High-Temperature Milk Processing. Encyclopedia 1(4), 1312–1321. doi:10.3390/encyclopedia1040098 · other copiesQuoted passage: a description; Review of heat-induced changes in industrial milk processing (pasteurisation, UHT and similar); denaturation onset stated for heat treatment in general, not for steaming..
  3. AHuppertz, T. (2010). Foaming properties of milk: A review of the influence of composition and processing. International Journal of Dairy Technology 63(4), 477–488. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0307.2010.00629.x · other copiesQuoted passage: a description; Review of milk foaming, composition and processing; abstract consulted..
  4. AHo, T. M.; Lu, Y.-J.; Xiong, X.; Bhandari, B. R.; Bansal, N. (2024). Ability to re-foam frothed milk at different solid concentrations and their foam structure. International Journal of Dairy Technology 77(3), 874–883. doi:10.1111/1471-0307.13074 · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; Reconstituted skim milk powder at 1.5–15% solids, steam injection and mechanical mixing, foamed up to four times; lab, Australia..
  5. AHo, T. M.; Xiong, X.; Bhandari, B. R.; Bansal, N. (2024). Foaming Properties and Foam Structure of Milk Determined by Its Protein Content and Protein to Fat Ratio. Food and Bioprocess Technology 17(12), 4665–4678. doi:10.1007/s11947-024-03407-y · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; Reconstituted skim and whole milk powders, commercial whole milk; steam injection (5 to 65 °C) and mechanical mixing; lab, Australia. The 65–70 °C range describes coffee-shop practice (introduction); the study itself stopped at 65 °C..
  6. AJimenez-Junca, C.; Sher, A.; Gumy, J.-C.; Niranjan, K. (2015). Production of milk foams by steam injection: The effects of steam pressure and nozzle design. Journal of Food Engineering 166, 247–254. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.05.035 · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; Semi-skimmed pasteurised homogenised milk, 200 mL per foam; three nozzle designs, 100–280 kPa gauge steam; lab, United Kingdom..
  7. APijnenburg, J.; Sala, G.; van Valenberg, H.; Meinders, M. B. J. (2012). Foaming behaviour of organic and regular milk. Wageningen UR, project report BO-12.10-004.01-016.Quoted passage: the authors’ own result; Retail organic and regular semi-skimmed and whole milks, Netherlands; 100 mL frothed in an automatic milk frother (not a steam wand) at about 56 °C..
  8. ASantini, G.; Klimanova, Y.; Pucciarelli, S.; Polzonetti, V.; Cespi, M.; Perinelli, D. R.; Polidori, P.; Cognigni, L.; Fioretti, L.; Renzi, S.; Vincenzetti, S. (2023). Effects of different steam injection conditions on cappuccino’s nutritional profile. Food Chemistry 428, 136757. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136757 · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; Pasteurised and UHT cow’s milk steamed at 110 kPa gauge to 40–80 °C with the steam wand of a semi-automatic two-group espresso machine; lab, Italy. The cappuccino recipe is the authors’ description, not a specification..
  9. ATagliazucchi, D.; Helal, A.; Verzelloni, E.; Conte, A. (2012). The Type and Concentration of Milk Increase the in Vitro Bioaccessibility of Coffee Chlorogenic Acids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60(44), 11056–11064. doi:10.1021/jf302694a · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; In vitro gastric and pancreatic digestion of coffee with whole, semi-skimmed, skimmed or diluted milk; lab, Italy; abstract consulted..
  10. AGorman, M.; Knowles, S.; Falkeisen, A.; Barker, S.; Moss, R.; McSweeney, M. B. (2021). Consumer Perception of Milk and Plant-Based Alternatives Added to Coffee. Beverages 7(4), 80. doi:10.3390/beverages7040080 · other copiesQuoted passage: the authors’ own result; 116 regular coffee drinkers, Nova Scotia, Canada; filter coffee with 1% dairy milk, soy, almond or oat drink (10 g per about 100 g coffee); hedonic scales and CATA..
  11. BThomas, E.; Puget, S.; Valentin, D.; Songer, P. (2017). Sensory Evaluation – Profiling and Preferences. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 18, pp. 419–456. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00018-9 · other copiesQuoted passage: a result cited from earlier work; Textbook chapter describing earlier sensory studies (descriptive analysis of white coffee; sorting task on milk dash, cappuccino and latte)..
  12. AGupta, A.; Keast, R.; Liem, D. G.; Jadhav, S. R.; Mahato, D. K.; Gamlath, S. (2025). Barista-Quality Plant-Based Milk for Coffee: A Comprehensive Review of Sensory and Physicochemical Characteristics. Beverages 11(1), 24. doi:10.3390/beverages11010024 · other copiesQuoted passage: a result cited from earlier work; Review; the phase-separation result is from an earlier study of soy drink–coffee mixtures that was not consulted for this entry..
  13. ACourt of Justice of the European Union (2017). Judgment of the Court (Seventh Chamber) of 14 June 2017, Verband Sozialer Wettbewerb eV v TofuTown.com GmbH, Case C-422/16. Court of Justice of the European Union (full text as reproduced by IPPT; press release No 63/17).Quoted passage: a definition; Preliminary ruling on Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013, Article 78(2) and Annex VII Part III; applies in the EU..

Tier A · authoritative · B · trade and expert · C · general. Supporting quotes for every source are in the data version of this entry. If a publisher’s site refuses access, try the doi link or “other copies”.

The literature for this entry was last searched on 27 Oct 2026. A statement that no source consulted for this entry shows something refers to the sources above; newer or missing work may exist.

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