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Botany · Species and varieties

Coffea arabica

The species behind arabica coffee. A natural hybrid of two other coffee species, native to the highland forests of south-western Ethiopia and South Sudan, self-fertile, narrow in diversity and listed as Endangered in the wild.

Across the chain: Sustainability

Source-checkedby Coffearium verification pass· Last source-checked 16 Oct 2026· Prepared with AI assistance· 19 sources (16 tier A)· 4 contested· Updated 16 Oct 2026
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Contents
  • *C. arabica* is an allotetraploid hybrid of *C. eugenioides* and *C. canephora*, with 44 chromosomes (2n = 4x = 44).1,2
  • Wild arabica grows in the highland forests of south-western Ethiopia and eastern South Sudan; a population on Mount Marsabit, Kenya, may be introduced.3,4
  • The species mainly fertilises itself and has the lowest genetic diversity yet reported in a crop species.2
  • In 2025/26, arabica made up 52.8% of world coffee production by the count of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA); estimates of a typical share range up to about 65%.15,5
  • The IUCN Red List (International Union for Conservation of Nature) lists wild arabica as Endangered, on projected losses from climate change.14,4

A hybrid species#

Coffea arabica is a species of the coffee genus, Coffea, and the source of arabica coffee.1 It arose when two other coffee species, C. canephora and C. eugenioides, crossed in the wild.1

The hybrid kept both parents’ full sets of chromosomes. That makes it a tetraploid, with four sets and 44 chromosomes in all.2 Because the sets come from two different species, botanists call it an allotetraploid.1,2 C. canephora, one of the two parents, is the species grown as robusta.8

When the cross happened is not settled. A 2024 genome study puts it at 350,000–610,000 years ago; earlier estimates differ widely (see Contested).1,2

Where it grows wild#

Wild arabica is native to the forests of south-western Ethiopia and eastern South Sudan.3,9 In South Sudan the species grows on the Boma Plateau.9,4 A third area, Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya, is included in the native range by Kew’s Plants of the World Online. A 2019 study considers it more likely an area where arabica was introduced and cultivated.3,4

It is a highland plant. Kew gives an altitude of 950–1,950 m for the wild populations, but two reviews give a higher range (see the figure).5,6,7 In its native forests, arabica became established as an understorey shrub, growing in the shade of taller trees.6

80012001600200024002800Metres above sea levelKew species profile950–1,950 m5 Physiology review (2006)1,600–2,800 m6 Phenology review(2025), hybridisation area1,600–2,800 m7 Coffee mostly grown inEthiopia(2017 study)1,200–2,200 m17
Data table
Metres above sea levelSource
Kew species profile950–1,950 m5
Physiology review (2006)1,600–2,800 m6
Phenology review (2025), hybridisation area1,600–2,800 m7
Coffee mostly grown in Ethiopia (2017 study)1,200–2,200 m17
Altitude of wild arabica as given by three sources, with the range where coffee was mostly grown in Ethiopia in 2017 for comparison. The sources disagree by 850 m at the upper end.5,6,7,17

The plant#

The arabica plant is a shrub or small tree, 2–8 m tall, with evergreen, usually shiny leaves.5,3 Its flowers are white and sweetly scented. The fruits are red, sometimes yellow or purple.5 Each fruit, the coffee cherry, holds two seeds; their structure is described in Coffee cherry anatomy.

The species can fertilise itself. Its flowers mainly self-pollinate, although insects sometimes carry pollen between plants.2 C. canephora (robusta), by contrast, is strictly self-incompatible, according to a 2017 textbook chapter: it needs pollen from another plant.8

Flowering follows a dry spell. A short dry period of 2–4 months helps to trigger it.6 Once the flower buds are mature, a rainfall of 5–10 mm can start them growing again.7 The fruit takes on average 220–243 days from flowering to ripeness.7 When and how often each origin picks is covered in Harvest calendars.

Climate it needs#

C. arabica is a plant of cool, moist highlands. Its optimum mean annual temperature is 18–21 °C, and its optimum rainfall 1,200–1,800 mm a year.6 Above 23 °C, the fruits develop and ripen faster, which often lowers quality.6 Frost can kill the plant.6 C. canephora, from lowland forest, has a warmer optimum of 22–26 °C according to this 2006 review6; a 2020 yield study in South-East Asia found its best yields below 20.5 °C (see Coffea canephora). How growers match these needs to a site is covered in Site selection and climate.

How much coffee is arabica#

In its July 2026 count, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) put arabica at 94.4 million of 178.8 million 60-kg bags for 2025/26. That is 52.8% by our calculation.15 The share moves from year to year with the size of the harvests, above all in Brazil.15 Other sources give about 60% or about 65% as a typical share.1,5

020406080100% of world productionUSDA, 2024/2557.8%15 USDA, 2025/2652.8%15 USDA, 2026/27 forecast55.8%15 ICO, coffee year 2024/2557.5%16 2024 genome study≈60%1 Kew species profile≈65%5
Data table
% of world productionSource
USDA, 2024/2557.8%15
USDA, 2025/2652.8%15
USDA, 2026/27 forecast55.8%15
ICO, coffee year 2024/2557.5%16
2024 genome study≈60%1
Kew species profile≈65%5
Arabica share of world coffee production. USDA and International Coffee Organization (ICO) shares are our calculation from their bag counts; 2026/27 is a USDA forecast of July 2026.15,16,1,5

Threats and climate change#

Wild arabica is listed as Endangered on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).14 The listing rests on climate change. A 2019 study projected that wild populations could fall by 50% or more by 2088, and by over 80% in a few models. Without climate change in the assessment, the species would be Least Concern.4

Farmed arabica faces the same pressure. In Ethiopia, 39–59% of the current coffee-growing area could become unsuitable for coffee by the end of this century, if nothing is done.17 The same study found that moving coffee to new areas, together with forest conservation, could increase the suitable area at least fourfold.17 Worldwide, a 2015 study projected that climate change will reduce the area suitable for coffee by about 50% across emission scenarios.18

C. arabica is also susceptible to coffee leaf rust. Breeders took resistance genes mainly from the Timor Hybrid, a natural cross of arabica and robusta (see Arabica varieties and their lines).8 The index below shows arabica among all accepted coffee species with their Red List categories. Search a name or a country, or filter by region and category.

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Coffee species index

All 133 accepted coffee species: where each grows wild and how threatened it is. Search a name or a country, filter by region and Red List category.

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Species shown
Threatened
Grown as cropsnow or in the past

Extinction risk (IUCN Red List)

    133 accepted species in Plants of the World Online (Kew), accessed 12 October 2026; native regions grouped by us. The hybrid C. ×heterocalyx is not counted. Red List categories: IUCN Red List version 2026-1 via GBIF (C. liberica checked on the IUCN Red List website, 12 October 2026: Least Concern); 2 names without a clean match are shown as “Not matched”.

    Genome and origin#

    C. arabica is an allopolyploid with 2n = 4x = 44 chromosomes.2 Its two subgenomes descend from C. canephora and C. eugenioides, which a 1999 study showed with molecular markers and genomic in situ hybridisation; genome assemblies of arabica and both parents confirmed it in 2024.19,8,1 The 1999 study also found low divergence between the subgenomes and the parent species, which pointed to a relatively recent origin.19 The 2024 study found evidence for a single founding polyploidy event 350,000–610,000 years ago, followed by several bottlenecks before domestication.1 It also found that wild accessions and the ancestors of cultivars split about 30,500 years ago, with gene flow between the two afterwards.1

    Dating the event is difficult because the subgenomes have diverged little from their parent species.19,8 A 2020 genome study gave a broad interval of 10,000 or 665,000 years before present.2 A 2017 textbook chapter, citing a 2012 study, describes the speciation as very recent.8

    0100200300400500600700thousand years agoBar: an interval · dots: two separate estimates2024 genome study:founding hybridisation350–6101 2020 genome study:founding hybridisation102 6652 2024 genome study: wildand cultivar ancestorssplit≈30.51
    Data table
    Pointthousand years agoSource
    2024 genome study: founding hybridisation350–610350–6101
    2020 genome study: founding hybridisation10102
    2020 genome study: founding hybridisation6656652
    2024 genome study: wild and cultivar ancestors split≈30.530.51
    Published estimates of when C. arabica arose, in thousand years before present, and of the split between wild and cultivated populations. The 2017 textbook chapter gives no interval of its own and is not drawn.1,2

    A narrow gene pool#

    C. arabica has little genetic diversity, for three reasons that add up. The species probably arose from a single hybridisation event, so it started from very few individuals.2 Bottlenecks before domestication narrowed it further.1 And predominant self-fertilisation leads to high levels of inbreeding.2 A 2020 study found in arabica the lowest level of genetic diversity reported so far in any crop species.2 Domestication narrowed it again: the traditional varieties Typica and Bourbon derive from populations grown in Yemen; that history is told in Arabica varieties and their lines.8

    Ethiopia’s wild coffee forests are the main storehouse of C. arabica.17 The metro map in the varieties entry shows how breeders worked with that narrow base and where robusta genes entered it.

    Reproduction and fruit cycle#

    The mating system is primarily self-fertilisation; pollinator-mediated outcrossing may occur occasionally.2 Field studies in Colombia, reviewed in 2025, attribute 56.4–95.3% of fruit set to self-pollination and 9.4–26.7% to insect-mediated cross-pollination.7

    Flower buds reach a stage of true dormancy when physiologically mature; rainfall of 5–10 mm can trigger the resumption of growth.7 A dry spell of 2–4 months, corresponding to the quiescent growth phase, stimulates flowering.6 Fruit development from flowering to maturity takes on average 220–243 days.7 Farther from the equator, one or two flowering events per year are typical.7

    Native range and altitude#

    Sources agree on the core of the native range, the forests of south-western Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in South Sudan, but not on its altitude.9,3 Kew gives 950–1,950 m.5 A 2006 review gives 1,600–2,800 m for the Ethiopian forests where arabica is native, and a 2025 review the same range for the highlands where the hybridisation occurred.6,7 Two 2017 textbook chapters give ranges within these limits, one of them citing a 2006 conspectus of the genus.8,9 For comparison, coffee in Ethiopia is mostly confined to 1,200–2,200 m.17

    Climate envelope#

    Parameter C. arabica Source
    Optimum mean annual temperature 18–21 °C DaMatta & Ramalho6
    Accelerated ripening, quality loss above 23 °C DaMatta & Ramalho6
    Optimum annual rainfall 1,200–1,800 mm DaMatta & Ramalho6
    Rainfall pattern, native Ethiopian forests One rainy season a year Lambot et al.9
    Dry spell that stimulates flowering 2–4 months DaMatta & Ramalho6
    Native soils (Ethiopia) Deep, red or brownish, well drained, acidic Lambot et al.9
    Frost Damages and can kill the plant DaMatta & Ramalho6

    The descriptions of native forests come from one textbook chapter and are given for comparison only.9 According to the same chapter, arabica is better adapted to cold than robusta, but behaves much like robusta under warm conditions.9

    Arabica and robusta in brief#

    The full comparison of the two crop species is in the entry on C. canephora. The short version:

    Trait C. arabica C. canephora (robusta)
    Chromosomes 2n = 4x = 44, allotetraploid2 One of the two parent species of arabica1
    Breeding system Mainly self-fertilising2 Strictly self-incompatible8
    Native habitat Highland forest, Ethiopia and South Sudan3 Lowland forest, Congo basin; up to 1,200 m in Uganda6
    Optimum mean annual temperature 18–21 °C6 22–26 °C6
    Caffeine, green coffee 0.9–1.5% of dry weight (average)10 1.2–2.4% (basis not stated)10
    Lipids, green coffee (basis not stated) about 15% (average)11 about 10%11
    Sucrose and trigonelline Higher12 Lower12
    Chlorogenic acids Lower12 Higher12
    IUCN Red List Endangered14 Least Concern14

    A 2001 study of wild accessions found more trigonelline and sucrose in C. arabica and more chlorogenic acids and caffeine in C. canephora.12 According to a 2017 textbook chapter, arabica also holds more carbohydrates, lipids and organic acids, and robusta more protein, ash and transition metals.13 Caffeine by species and by brew is covered in Caffeine.

    Production figures#

    Source Period Arabica production All coffee Arabica share
    USDA, July 2026 2024/25 102.3 million bags 176.8 million bags 57.8%
    USDA, July 2026 2025/26 94.4 million bags 178.8 million bags 52.8%
    USDA, July 2026 2026/27 (forecast) 105.9 million bags 189.7 million bags 55.8%
    ICO, February 2026 Coffee year 2024/25 102,065 177,513 57.5%

    USDA figures are thousand 60-kg bags, given here in millions15; the ICO table gives the counts without a unit and heads the column “2024” (Table 4 of the same report states thousand 60-kg bags).16 Shares are our calculation. Figures as of October 2026; ICO’s February 2026 report was the latest with a supply balance opened for this entry.

    Conservation status in detail#

    The IUCN Red List (version 2026-1) lists C. arabica as Endangered.14 Plants of the World Online gives the criterion as A3b, a projected population reduction.3 The 2019 study behind it modelled the species under several climate models, emission scenarios and migration scenarios. It projected population reductions of 50% or more by 2088 and declines of about 30% in extent of occurrence and area of occupancy in many cases.4 It used a generation length of 16–30 years, with 21 years as a conservative value.4 Without climate change the species would be assessed as Least Concern, which makes the listing an example of how strongly climate projections shape Red List outcomes.4 Kew’s plant profile gives the same Endangered status.5

    The wild forests matter for the crop. At least 80% of Ethiopia’s coffee comes from forests, forest-like habitats or shaded farms, and the wild coffee forests are the main storehouse of C. arabica.17 The threats to all wild coffee species are covered in The coffee genus.

    Key studies#

    Salojärvi et al., 2024 – The arabica genome. Assembles chromosome-level genomes of arabica and both parent species and resequences wild and cultivated accessions. Dates the founding hybridisation, traces the bottlenecks that left the species narrow and separates wild populations from the ancestors of cultivars.

    Nature Genetics 56(4), 721–731 · doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01695-w

    Scalabrin et al., 2020 – One polyploidisation, little variation. Sequences arabica genomes and compares them with the parent species. Concludes that a single polyploidisation event and predominant self-fertilisation explain why arabica has less genetic diversity than any other crop studied.

    Scientific Reports 10, 4642 · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61216-7

    Moat, Gole & Davis, 2019 – Least Concern to Endangered. Models the future of wild arabica under many climate scenarios and applies the Red List criteria. Including climate change moves the species from Least Concern to Endangered.

    Global Change Biology 25(2), 390–403 · doi:10.1111/gcb.14341

    Moat et al., 2017 – Ethiopian coffee under climate change. Maps where coffee can be grown in Ethiopia now and under future climates. Finds that 39–59% of the current growing area could become unsuitable this century, while relocation and forest conservation could expand suitable land at least fourfold.

    Nature Plants 3, 17081 · doi:10.1038/nplants.2017.81

    DaMatta & Ramalho, 2006 – Drought and temperature in coffee. Reviews how arabica and robusta respond to heat, cold and water stress. Gives the optimum temperature and rainfall ranges of both species and explains arabica’s origin as an understorey shrub.

    Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 18(1), 55–81 · doi:10.1590/S1677-04202006000100006

    Contested
    • Age of the species: a 2024 genome study dates the founding hybridisation to 350,000–610,000 years ago1; a 2020 genome study gave a broad interval of 10,000 or 665,000 years before present2; a 2017 textbook chapter, citing a 2012 study, describes a very recent speciation.8
    • Mount Marsabit, Kenya: Plants of the World Online includes it in the native range3; the 2019 Red List study treats it as an area where arabica was probably introduced and cultivated.4
    • Altitude of wild arabica: Kew gives 950–1,950 m5; a 2006 and a 2025 review give 1,600–2,800 m.6,7
    • Share of world production: USDA counts give 52.8–57.8% for 2024/25 to 2026/27 and the International Coffee Organization 57.5% for 2024/2515,16; the 2024 genome study says about 60% and Kew about 65%.1,5
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    Sources

    1. ASalojärvi, J.; Rambani, A.; Yu, Z.; Guyot, R.; et al. (2024). The genome and population genomics of allopolyploid Coffea arabica reveal the diversification history of modern coffee cultivars. Nature Genetics 56(4), 721–731. doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01695-w · other copies
    2. AScalabrin, S.; Toniutti, L.; Di Gaspero, G.; et al.; Bertrand, B. (2020). A single polyploidization event at the origin of the tetraploid genome of Coffea arabica is responsible for the extremely low genetic variation in wild and cultivated germplasm. Scientific Reports 10, 4642. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61216-7 · other copies
    3. ARoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026). Coffea arabica L.. Plants of the World Online (World Checklist of Vascular Plants).
    4. AMoat, J.; Gole, T. W.; Davis, A. P. (2019). Least concern to endangered: Applying climate change projections profoundly influences the extinction risk assessment for wild Arabica coffee. Global Change Biology 25(2), 390–403. doi:10.1111/gcb.14341 · other copies
    5. ARoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew (2026). Arabica coffee. Kew, plant profile (copy in the UK Government Web Archive, March 2026).
    6. ADaMatta, F. M.; Ramalho, J. D. C. (2006). Impacts of drought and temperature stress on coffee physiology and production: a review. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 18(1), 55–81. doi:10.1590/S1677-04202006000100006 · other copies
    7. AUnigarro, C. A.; Cayón Salinas, D. G.; León-Burgos, A. F.; Flórez-Ramos, C. P. (2025). Flowering and Fruiting of Coffea arabica L.: A Comprehensive Perspective from Phenology. Plants 14(21), 3396. doi:10.3390/plants14213396 · other copies
    8. BHerrera, J. C.; Lambot, C. (2017). The Coffee Tree – Genetic Diversity and Origin. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 1, pp. 1–16. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00001-3 · other copies
    9. BLambot, C.; Herrera, J. C.; Bertrand, B.; Sadeghian, S.; Benavides, P.; Gaitán, A. (2017). Cultivating Coffee Quality – Terroir and Agro-Ecosystem. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 2, pp. 17–49. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00002-5 · other copies
    10. AOlechno, E.; Puścion-Jakubik, A.; Zujko, M. E.; Socha, K. (2021). Influence of Various Factors on Caffeine Content in Coffee Brews. Foods 10(6), 1208. doi:10.3390/foods10061208 · other copies
    11. ASpeer, K.; Kölling-Speer, I. (2006). The lipid fraction of the coffee bean. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 18(1), 201–216. doi:10.1590/S1677-04202006000100014 · other copies
    12. AKy, C. L.; Louarn, J.; Dussert, S.; Guyot, B.; Hamon, S.; Noirot, M. (2001). Caffeine, trigonelline, chlorogenic acids and sucrose diversity in wild Coffea arabica L. and Coffea canephora P. accessions. Food Chemistry 75(2), 223–230.
    13. BPoisson, L.; Blank, I.; Dunkel, A.; Hofmann, T. (2017). The Chemistry of Roasting – Decoding Flavor Formation. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 12, pp. 273–309.
    14. AIUCN (2026). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, version 2026-1 (via GBIF.org). International Union for Conservation of Nature; GBIF, licence CC BY 4.0. doi:10.15468/0qnb58 · other copies
    15. AUSDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2026). Coffee: World Markets and Trade (July 2026). United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service.
    16. AInternational Coffee Organization (2026). Coffee Market Report – February 2026. International Coffee Organization (ICO).
    17. AMoat, J.; Williams, J.; Baena, S.; Wilkinson, T.; Gole, T. W.; Challa, Z. K.; Demissew, S.; Davis, A. P. (2017). Resilience potential of the Ethiopian coffee sector under climate change. Nature Plants 3, 17081. doi:10.1038/nplants.2017.81 · other copies
    18. ABunn, C.; Läderach, P.; Ovalle Rivera, O.; Kirschke, D. (2015). A bitter cup: climate change profile of global production of Arabica and Robusta coffee. Climatic Change 129(1), 89–101. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1306-x · other copies
    19. ALashermes, P.; Combes, M. C.; Robert, J.; Trouslot, P.; D’Hont, A.; Anthony, F.; Charrier, A. (1999). Molecular characterisation and origin of the Coffea arabica L. genome. Molecular and General Genetics 261(2), 259–266.

    Tier A · authoritative · B · trade and expert · C · general. Supporting quotes for every source are in the data version of this entry. If a publisher’s site refuses access, try the doi link or “other copies”.

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