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Roasting · Chemistry

Maillard reaction

The chain of reactions between sugars and amino acids that browns roasting coffee and forms much of its aroma – running through the whole roast, at rates that change with temperature, time and roast degree.

Across the chain: Science

Source-checkedby Coffearium verification pass· Last source-checked 14 Oct 2026· Prepared with AI assistance· 18 sources (14 tier A)· 1 contested· Updated 20 Oct 2026
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Contents
  • The Maillard reaction starts when a reducing sugar condenses with an amino acid; the products break down into aroma compounds and brown melanoidins.1,2
  • Sucrose, the main free sugar in green coffee, must first split into glucose and fructose before it can react.1,4
  • Roast volatiles do not form at one stage only; in exhaust measurements of one roast, some appeared well before first crack and one kept rising until the drop.9
  • Strecker degradation, part of the same network, turns amino acids into malty and potato-like aldehydes and releases carbon dioxide.1,2
  • At the same colour, a longer development after first crack lowered buttery 2,3-butanedione and slightly raised some pyrazines in one 2020 study.10

What the Maillard reaction is#

The Maillard reaction is a chain of reactions between sugars and amino compounds that turns food brown.2 It is named after the French scientist Maillard, who described the reaction between reducing sugars and amino groups in 1912.3 Glucose and fructose are reducing sugars; sucrose reacts less readily until its bond is broken.4

In roasting coffee, it is one of the main routes to flavour and colour. A 2020 sensory study describes most coffee flavour as forming through non-enzymatic browning, such as the Maillard reaction and caramelisation.5 The reaction gives roasted, caramel-like, earthy and toasted aroma compounds, carbon dioxide, and the brown polymers called melanoidins.1

It is not one reaction but a network. A sugar and an amino acid first join. The product then breaks into smaller, reactive fragments, and these recombine into a multitude of compounds.1,2 According to a textbook chapter on roasting chemistry, which compounds form depends on the sugars and amino acids present, and on temperature, time, pressure, pH and moisture.1

What it needs from the green coffee#

Two groups of building blocks take part: sugars and amino compounds.

  • Sugars. Sucrose is by far the most abundant free sugar in green coffee.1 It is not a reducing sugar, so it must first split into glucose and fructose before it can take part.1,4 In a 2000 study, beans enriched with sucrose and then roasted formed glucose and fructose, read as primary products of sucrose breakdown.4
  • Free amino acids. They make up only a small share of green coffee, but they are key partners in the reaction. Almost all of them are used up during roasting.1
  • Later partners. Arabinose released from cell-wall polysaccharides, and amino acids bound in proteins, are freed more slowly. According to the roasting chemistry chapter, they join the reaction later in the roast.1

The same chapter describes sucrose and free amino acids as the first precursors consumed, because they are immediately available and highly reactive.1

When it happens during a roast#

The reaction does not switch on at one temperature and off at another. It runs through most of the roast, at rates that change. In a 2012 colour study, browning through Maillard and Strecker reactions is described as starting above 100 °C.8 In a 2005 laboratory fluid-bed study, carbon dioxide and water from chemical reactions rose significantly only once the bean core reached 180–200 °C.7 The study names the Maillard reaction among their sources.7

A roasting textbook chapter describes gas formation from pyrolysis and the Maillard reaction in isothermal roasting.6 It is slow at first and accelerates strongly in the second half.6 A 2012 study followed volatile compounds in the exhaust of a 15–20 kg drum roaster in real time.9 Some traces rose to a peak at first crack and then fell towards the end of a dark roast; others levelled off at first crack and rose again until the drop.9

After first crack, the bean dries out and browning moves faster, from the surface towards the centre.10 So browning is still at work during development, the time from first crack to the drop.10

What it makes#

The volatile products belong to a few chemical families. According to the roasting chemistry chapter, they include:1

  • Pyrazines – earthy, roasty, nutty.
  • Pyrroles and pyridines – nitrogen rings; pyridines and pyrroles also come from the breakdown of trigonelline.
  • Furans and furanones – sweet and caramel-like,15 including enolones such as furaneol.
  • Thiazoles – roasty, popcorn-like.
  • Diketones – buttery, such as 2,3-butanedione (diacetyl).
  • Thiols – sulphury and coffee-like, such as 2-furfurylthiol.

Strecker degradation is part of the same network. It turns amino acids into aldehydes with malty, potato-like and honey-like notes, and releases carbon dioxide.1,2

The larger, non-volatile products are the melanoidins. These brown, nitrogen-containing compounds of high molecular weight give roasted coffee its colour.11,1

PrecursorsInitial stageIntermediate stageFinal stage12345678910
  1. Sucrose. The main free sugar in green coffee. Its glycosidic bond must break before it can react.1,4
  2. Glucose and fructose. The reducing sugars formed when sucrose splits, early in the roast.4
  3. Free amino acids. A small share of green coffee, almost completely used up in roasting.1
  4. Later precursors. Arabinose from polysaccharides and amino acids bound in proteins join later in the roast.1
  5. Amadori and Heyns products. The first stable intermediates, after sugar and amino acid condense.1,2
  6. Fragments and dicarbonyls. The intermediates break down into smaller, reactive pieces.1,2
  7. Strecker degradation. A dicarbonyl reacts with an amino acid, which becomes an aldehyde with one carbon less, and carbon dioxide is released.2
  8. Aroma compounds. Volatile pyrazines, pyrroles, furans and furanones, thiazoles, diketones and thiols.1
  9. Melanoidins. Brown, nitrogen-containing polymers of high molecular weight.11
  10. Caramelisation. A separate route that breaks down sugars without amino compounds; it also gives aroma and brown polymers.1
The Maillard reaction in roasting coffee, from precursors to products, along the three stages of the classic reaction scheme.2 Schematic, not to scale.

Common misunderstandings#

  • “The Maillard phase.” In roasting practice, the span from yellowing to first crack is called the “Maillard phase”.17 The name marks a stretch of the roast, not the limits of the reaction. Browning is described as starting above 100 °C.8 Roast volatiles kept forming after first crack in a 2012 exhaust study.9 In a 2020 study, Maillard-derived pyrazines rose slightly with longer development.10
  • Maillard reaction and caramelisation are the same. They are different. Caramelisation needs only sugars; the Maillard reaction needs amino compounds as well.1,2 According to the roasting chemistry chapter, aroma formation favours the Maillard route.1
  • Sweetness comes from leftover sugar. In a 2020 study, no simple sugars were found in the brews. Yet the panel found significant differences in sweetness.10 The authors suggest that sweet-smelling aroma compounds, such as buttery diketones, may partly explain it.10
  • A longer Maillard stage gives more body. In a sensory analysis of eight roasting studies, body was not affected by either roasting phase. The authors note that this goes against a common belief linking the Maillard reaction with texture.5

The reaction scheme#

The classic scheme of the reaction was published by Hodge in 19532; a 2002 doctoral thesis on Maillard kinetics describes it as still widely used.18 It has three stages:2

  1. Initial stage (colourless): sugar–amine condensation and the Amadori rearrangement.
  2. Intermediate stage (colourless or yellow, strong absorption in the near ultraviolet): sugar dehydration, sugar fragmentation and amino acid degradation.
  3. Final stage (highly coloured): aldol condensation and aldehyde–amine polymerisation, which forms heterocyclic nitrogen compounds and brown pigments.

In detail, the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar couples with the amino group of an amino acid, peptide or protein. The resulting N-substituted glycosylamine (Schiff base) rearranges into the first stable intermediates, the Amadori and Heyns products.1 According to the same thesis, the Heyns rearrangement is thought to follow when the sugar is a ketose such as fructose.18 These activated sugar conjugates decompose readily into smaller fragments, which react further into volatile and non-volatile products.1 The roasting chemistry chapter sums the reaction up as an amino-catalysed sugar degradation that leads to aroma, taste and colour.1

In coffee, sucrose enters late compared with free reducing sugars. Its glycosidic bond must be cleaved first, which explains its initially lower reactivity.4 A 2000 study proposed that sucrose splits either by hydrolysis into glucose and fructose or, without water, into a reducing sugar plus an anhydro sugar; both can degrade further.4 The same study found signs that glucose and fructose interconvert during roasting.4

According to the roasting chemistry chapter, the coffee bean can be seen as a pressurised reactor, and roasting green coffee powder or bean fragments differs from roasting whole beans, so conclusions from model mixtures must be applied with care.1

Strecker degradation#

Strecker degradation is a branch of the Maillard network. A dicarbonyl from the Maillard reaction reacts with an amino acid. The amino acid is deaminated and decarboxylated into an aldehyde with one carbon less, and carbon dioxide is released.1,2 Hodge’s review reports an earlier finding that, in sugar–amino acid browning, aldehyde production paralleled the release of carbon dioxide.2 A 2020 review notes that some of the free amino acids and peptides in coffee are used in Strecker degradation.15

According to the roasting chemistry chapter, the Strecker aldehydes that matter for coffee aroma include:1

  • 2- and 3-methylbutanal – malty;
  • methional – potato-like;
  • phenylacetaldehyde – honey-like.

The same reactions also yield alkylpyrazines (earthy, roasty), and the sulphur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine give thiols and sulphides.1 The chapter links the smaller amounts of 2- and 3-methylbutanal in roasted arabica coffee to its lower levels of their precursors, isoleucine and leucine, compared with robusta.1 See Strecker degradation for the reaction in detail.

Caramelisation and other browning routes#

Caramelisation is the breakdown of sugars by heat alone. The roasting chemistry chapter lists free sugars (sucrose after inversion) as its precursors, against reducing sugars plus nitrogen compounds for the Maillard reaction; it gives caramel-like and seasoning-like notes.1 Hodge’s review already treated carbonyl–amino, non-amino and oxidative browning as distinct but related types.2

According to the roasting chemistry chapter, aroma formation favours the Maillard route, because amino acids lower the activation energy. Both routes are the main sources of brown polymers.1 Sources disagree on the temperature at which caramelisation begins in the bean (see Contested).8,15

Other reactions run at the same time and share intermediates. Chlorogenic acids break down into bitter lactones and smoky phenols such as guaiacol, and trigonelline degrades into pyridines and pyrroles.1 Formic and acetic acids form early in the roast from carbohydrates, through both the Maillard reaction and caramelisation.1 In a 2000 study, model roasts identified sucrose as their principal green-coffee precursor.4

Products and key odorants#

Of the many volatiles in roasted coffee, only a small set of key odorants carries the aroma. According to the roasting chemistry chapter, they belong to the classes of thiols, sulphides, aldehydes, pyrazines, dicarbonyls, phenols and furanones.1 Most of these classes come from the Maillard network; phenols come from chlorogenic acids.1

Class Example compounds in coffee Odour described Source
Thiols 2-Furfurylthiol; 3-mercapto-3-methylbutyl formate Sulphury, roasty; catty, blackcurrant-like Poisson et al.1
Strecker aldehydes Methional; 2- and 3-methylbutanal Potato; malty Poisson et al.1
Diketones 2,3-Butanedione; 2,3-pentanedione Buttery Poisson et al.1
Alkylpyrazines 2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine; 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine Earthy, roasty Poisson et al.1
Furanones Furaneol (4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone); sotolon Caramel, fruity; fenugreek, curry Poisson et al.1

Potent odorants in a brew. In a 2002 study of a filtered coffee brew by aroma extract dilution analysis, methional, 3-mercapto-3-methylbutyl formate, furaneol and 5-ethyl-3-hydroxy-4-methyl-2(5H)-furanone were among the most intense odorants.14 In the same study, the instant coffee beverage gave much lower flavour dilution factors, with the largest differences for some sulphur compounds, including 2-furfurylthiol.14

2-Furfurylthiol. According to the roasting chemistry chapter, it is the only odorant whose note resembles coffee itself, and only within a certain range; at high levels it turns rubbery.1 In a 2021 in-bean study, green beans spiked with furfuryl alcohol and then roasted formed more 2-furfurylthiol, rising with the dose added, and a labelled form of furfuryl alcohol gave labelled 2-furfurylthiol.13 The authors propose a route through a furfuryl cation and protein-bound S-furfuryl-L-cysteine; furfural played no major role as a precursor.13

Melanoidins. They are high-molecular-weight, nitrogen-containing brown compounds. Polysaccharides, proteins and chlorogenic acids are involved in their formation in coffee.11 A 2012 review describes their exact structures and formation mechanisms as far from elucidated.11 See Melanoidins for their structure and amounts.

How roast degree and speed shift the products#

Roast degree. Many Maillard volatiles pass through a maximum. According to the roasting chemistry chapter, diketones and furfurals form early, alongside the use of free sugars and amino acids, peak at a medium roast and decline in very dark roasts.1 Alkylpyrazines also form early but stay almost constant in the final stage.1 A 2008 study found that excessive roasting generally led to falling or stable amounts of volatiles, except hexanal, pyridine and dimethyl trisulfide, which kept rising.12

Speed. In the same 2008 study, high-temperature short-time roasting gave considerable differences in bean physical properties and in the kinetics of aroma formation, compared with low-temperature long-time roasting to the same lightness.12,1 According to the roasting chemistry chapter, fast roasting gives more diketones and furfurals and fewer phenols, so a less burnt, smoky flavour.1

Development time at one colour. A 2020 study roasted one Colombian coffee on a 1 kg drum roaster to the same colour (Agtron 76) with development times of 90, 143, 266 and 390 s.10 In the headspace of the brews, 2,3-butanedione, furfural and the Strecker aldehyde phenylacetaldehyde (benzeneacetaldehyde) fell with longer development. 2-(Methoxymethyl)furan rose, and several pyrazines rose slightly, mainly in the longest development.10 The panel scored the shortest development highest for sweetness and fruitiness; longer development scored roastier and more bitter.10

6012018024030036042000.511.522.53Development time after first crack (s)Mean relative peak area (thousands)Furfural10 2,3-Butanedione10 2-(Methoxymethyl)furan10 2,5-Dimethylpyrazine10
Data table
SeriesDevelopment time after first crack (s)Mean relative peak area (thousands)Source
Furfural902.70110
Furfural1432.48710
Furfural2662.24610
Furfural3902.22210
2,3-Butanedione901.21310
2,3-Butanedione1431.14610
2,3-Butanedione2660.89210
2,3-Butanedione3900.83810
2-(Methoxymethyl)furan900.20310
2-(Methoxymethyl)furan1430.2610
2-(Methoxymethyl)furan2660.30610
2-(Methoxymethyl)furan3900.3310
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine900.22510
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine1430.23510
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine2660.22410
2,5-Dimethylpyrazine3900.25910
Mean relative peak areas (in thousands) of four browning-reaction volatiles in the brew headspace, at four development times after first crack and the same roast colour (Agtron 76); one Colombian coffee on a 1 kg drum roaster, first crack at about 570 s in all four roasts. Lines join the four measured points only.10

Side products#

Not every Maillard product is wanted. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) states that acrylamide “forms from sugars and amino acids (mainly one called asparagine) that are naturally present in many foods” and that “the main chemical process that causes this is known as the Maillard Reaction”.16 EFSA lists coffee among the products in which acrylamide is found.16 The roasting chemistry chapter also names furan as a Maillard-type product to mitigate.1 Health assessments and EU benchmark levels are covered in Roasting contaminants.

Reference values#

The values below are those reported in the sources. They describe one coffee, roaster or study each; they are not targets.

Parameter Value reported Source
First description 1912 (reducing sugars with amino groups) Robert & Robert3
Classic reaction scheme Hodge, 1953: initial, intermediate and final stage Hodge2
Browning in the bean begins Above 100 °C (Maillard and Strecker) Bicho et al.8
Reaction CO₂ and water rise clearly 180–200 °C, bean core (laboratory fluid bed) Geiger et al.7
Sucrose degraded in roasting Up to 99%, depending on the profile (earlier studies, as summarised) Alstrup et al.10
Exhaust volatiles, 15–20 kg drum (one medium-temperature dark roast, 894 s) Two traces first seen before 400 s and just before 500 s; maximum or plateau at about 730 s, with first crack Wieland et al.9
Headspace of brews, development 90, 143, 266 and 390 s at Agtron 76 (mean relative peak area) 2,3-Butanedione 1213, 1146, 892, 838; furfural 2701, 2487, 2246, 2222; benzeneacetaldehyde 48, 41, 32, 28; 2,5-dimethylpyrazine 225, 235, 224, 259; 2-(methoxymethyl)furan 203, 260, 306, 330 Alstrup et al.10
Simple sugars in the brews (same study) None identified; any carbohydrate below 0.5 mM Alstrup et al.10
Volatiles that kept rising during over-roasting Hexanal, pyridine, dimethyl trisulfide Baggenstoss et al.12

Measuring the reaction in a roast#

  • Off-line analysis. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of roasted beans, brews or their headspace quantifies volatiles at chosen points of a roast.1,10
  • Sensory-directed analysis. Gas chromatography–olfactometry, where the effluent is sniffed, finds the odorants that matter. Aroma extract dilution analysis ranks them, and odour activity values (concentration divided by odour threshold) weigh their impact.1,14
  • Real-time monitoring. Proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS) follows volatiles in the roaster exhaust in real time.9 According to the roasting chemistry chapter, the patterns from one such study predicted bean colour.1
  • In-bean experiments. Green beans are extracted, spiked or soaked with precursors, sometimes labelled with stable isotopes, and then roasted, so the bean itself serves as the reaction vessel.1,13

Open questions#

  • Melanoidin structure. Which polymers form, and how, was unresolved in a 2012 review.11
  • Model systems versus the bean. Much of the mechanistic work uses simple sugar–amino acid mixtures. The roasting chemistry chapter warns that the extreme conditions inside a whole bean can lead to different pathways.1
  • Caramelisation onset. The temperature at which sucrose caramelises inside the bean is not established (see Contested).8,15
  • Generality of development-time effects. The 2020 development-time study used one coffee at one roast degree; whether its findings hold at other degrees is untested.10

Key studies#

Hodge, 1953 – Chemistry of browning reactions. Brings scattered work on browning into one scheme of seven reaction types in three stages. Stresses the significance of the Amadori rearrangement in the Maillard reaction, and sets Maillard browning apart from non-amino and oxidative browning.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1(15), 928–943 · doi:10.1021/jf60015a004

Baggenstoss et al., 2008 – Time–temperature conditions and aroma. Follows 16 aroma compounds in a commercial drum and laboratory fluid beds, roasting fast and slow to the same lightness. Fast roasting changed bean properties and the kinetics of aroma formation; during over-roasting, most volatiles fell or levelled off.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56(14), 5836–5846 · doi:10.1021/jf800327j

Wieland et al., 2012 – Watching the roast in real time. Feeds exhaust gas from a 15–20 kg drum roaster into a PTR-ToF-MS. Volatile traces showed two typical shapes, peaking or levelling off at first crack, which supports using the exhaust to follow a roast as it happens.

Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 402(8), 2531–2543 · doi:10.1007/s00216-011-5401-9

Alstrup et al., 2020 – Development time at one colour. Four roasts of one Colombian coffee to Agtron 76, with 90–390 s of development. Longer development lowered diketones and furfural, slightly raised several pyrazines, and moved the cup from sweet and fruity towards roasty and bitter; no simple sugars were found in the brews.

Beverages 6(4), 70 · doi:10.3390/beverages6040070

Cerny et al., 2021 – Where 2-furfurylthiol comes from. Green beans were spiked with furfuryl alcohol, including a deuterium-labelled form, then roasted. The added alcohol raised 2-furfurylthiol and passed its label on, confirming furfuryl alcohol as a precursor in coffee.

Food Chemistry 337, 128008 · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128008

Contested
  • When caramelisation starts in the bean: a 2020 review says sucrose caramelises once the internal bean temperature reaches 130 °C15; a 2012 colour study places caramelisation together with bean cracking at 180–200 °C.8 Both are background statements in the papers, not measurements of caramelisation in the bean, so this entry gives no onset temperature in the text.
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Sources

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  2. AHodge, J. E. (1953). Dehydrated Foods, Chemistry of Browning Reactions in Model Systems. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1(15), 928–943. doi:10.1021/jf60015a004 · other copies
  3. ARobert, L.; Robert, A. M. (2007). La réaction de Maillard. Rôle physiopathologique et approche pharmacologique. Journal de la Société de Biologie 201(2), 167–174. doi:10.1051/jbio:2007021 · other copies
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  6. BSchenker, S.; Rothgeb, T. (2017). The Roast – Creating the Beans' Signature. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 11, pp. 245–271. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00011-6 · other copies
  7. AGeiger, R.; Perren, R.; Kuenzli, R.; Escher, F. (2005). Carbon Dioxide Evolution and Moisture Evaporation During Roasting of Coffee Beans. Journal of Food Science 70(2), E124–E130. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb07084.x · other copies
  8. ABicho, N. C.; Leitão, A. E.; Ramalho, J. C.; Lidon, F. C. (2012). Use of colour parameters for roasted coffee assessment. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 32(3), 436–442. doi:10.1590/S0101-20612012005000068 · other copies
  9. AWieland, F.; Gloess, A. N.; Keller, M.; Wetzel, A.; Schenker, S.; Yeretzian, C. (2012). Online monitoring of coffee roasting by proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS): towards a real-time process control for a consistent roast profile. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 402(8), 2531–2543. doi:10.1007/s00216-011-5401-9 · other copies
  10. AAlstrup, J.; Petersen, M. A.; Larsen, F. H.; Münchow, M. (2020). The Effect of Roast Development Time Modulations on the Sensory Profile and Chemical Composition of the Coffee Brew as Measured by NMR and DHS-GC–MS. Beverages 6(4), 70. doi:10.3390/beverages6040070 · other copies
  11. AMoreira, A. S. P.; Nunes, F. M.; Domingues, M. R.; Coimbra, M. A. (2012). Coffee melanoidins: structures, mechanisms of formation and potential health impacts. Food & Function 3(9). doi:10.1039/c2fo30048f · other copies
  12. ABaggenstoss, J.; Poisson, L.; Kaegi, R.; Perren, R.; Escher, F. (2008). Coffee Roasting and Aroma Formation: Application of Different Time−Temperature Conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56(14), 5836–5846. doi:10.1021/jf800327j · other copies
  13. ACerny, C.; Schlichtherle-Cerny, H.; Gibe, R.; Yuan, Y. (2021). Furfuryl alcohol is a precursor for furfurylthiol in coffee. Food Chemistry 337, 128008. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128008 · other copies
  14. ASanz, C.; Czerny, M.; Cid, C.; Schieberle, P. (2002). Comparison of potent odorants in a filtered coffee brew and in an instant coffee beverage by aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA). European Food Research and Technology 214(4), 299–302. doi:10.1007/s00217-001-0459-9 · other copies
  15. ASeninde, D. R.; Chambers, E., IV (2020). Coffee Flavor: A Review. Beverages 6(3), 44. doi:10.3390/beverages6030044 · other copies
  16. AEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Acrylamide (topic page). EFSA.
  17. CBarista Hustle HTR 4.02 Phases of the Roasting Profile (How to Roast course). Barista Hustle (online course).
  18. BBrands, C. M. J. (2002). Kinetic modelling of the Maillard reaction between proteins and sugars. Wageningen University (doctoral thesis), ISBN 90-5808-591-0.

Tier A · authoritative · B · trade and expert · C · general. Supporting quotes for every source are in the data version of this entry. If a publisher’s site refuses access, try the doi link or “other copies”.

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