Roasting
Dry heat that turns dense, green coffee seeds into brittle, porous, brown beans – forming aroma, taste and colour, driving off water and building up carbon dioxide.
Contents
In brief
- Roasting is a dry heat treatment. It creates flavour and sets the physical properties of the bean.1
- Bean temperatures rise from room temperature to around 200 °C and often higher; the beans lose 15–22% of their weight, most of it water, and gain from about 50% to almost 100% in volume.2
- Bean cracking (first crack) is reported at 180–200 °C,6 the same range in which carbon dioxide and water from chemical reactions start to form in relevant amounts.3
- In two sensory studies that varied both, roast colour predicted flavour better than roasting time; across seven studies at constant colour, development time after first crack mattered more than time to first crack.2
What roasting does#
Roasting is a dry heat treatment. It is the step in which flavour is created and the physical properties of the bean are set.1 The aim is a coffee with the desired flavour, but also a dark colour and a brittle, porous texture, ready for grinding and extraction.1
During a roast, bean temperature climbs from room temperature to around 200 °C, often higher.2 This drives several changes at once:
- Aroma and taste. Most of the flavour forms through non-enzymatic browning, such as the Maillard reaction and caramelisation.2
- Colour. The bean turns from greenish grey-blue to yellow, orange, brown, dark brown and finally almost black. According to a roasting textbook chapter, colour is the best indicator of the degree of roast.1
- Mass loss. The beans lose 15–22% of their weight, mostly water, and end with 1–2.5% moisture.2
- Volume and porosity. The beans gain from about 50% to almost 100% in volume.2 The dense green tissue becomes very porous.1
- Gas. Carbon dioxide is the main gas formed. Part escapes during roasting; a large part stays trapped and is released later, during storage and grinding.1
- Extractability. At the same colour, fast-roasted beans are more porous and generally yield more soluble matter on extraction than slow-roasted beans.1
The intact bean matters. Ground green coffee given a similar temperature history does not produce the desired flavour compounds; the whole bean acts as a small reactor.1
The stages of a roast#
Researchers divide the roast into drying, flavour and colour development, and cooling.5 Roasters add named events in between. The temperatures below are those reported in the sources; only the laboratory studies state that they measured the bean core. What a roaster’s probe shows depends on the machine (see Measuring temperature).
- Charge. The green coffee enters the hot roaster.1
- Drying. Water evaporates; over the whole roast, moisture falls from about 12% towards 2%. Generally the longest phase.5 One modelling study defines it as the stage with the bean below 160 °C.11
- Yellowing and browning. Browning reactions begin above 100 °C;6 the bean passes from green to yellow and orange.1
- Gas release and swelling. Around 150 °C, water vapour, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released and the bean starts to swell.6
- First crack. At 180–200 °C the endosperm ruptures.6 In the same range, reactions start to produce carbon dioxide and water in relevant amounts.3
- Development time. From first crack to the end of the roast;2 browning moves from the surface to the centre.4 A few seconds can separate the desired roast degree from an over-roasted product.1
- Second crack. Only if the roast continues until the bean is very dark; industrial roasts are generally taken out before it.5
- Drop and cooling. The beans leave the roaster and are cooled quickly with cold air or a water spray.1,6 In one drum study, medium roasts (Agtron 76) were ended at 191.1–204.1 °C.4
- Charge and drying. The green coffee enters the hot roaster (the “charge”).1 In the drying phase, water evaporates from the cells; over the whole roast the moisture falls from about 12% towards 2%. Drying is generally the longest phase.5 One modelling study defines drying as the stage with the bean below 160 °C.11
- Yellowing and browning. Above 100 °C, browning reactions begin and melanoidins start to form.6 The bean passes from green to yellow and orange, and the trier gives off a toasted-grain aroma.1 Around 150 °C, water vapour, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released and the bean starts to swell.6
- First crack. At 180–200 °C the endosperm ruptures and the beans crack.6 The sound resembles popping popcorn.1,5 In the same temperature range, chemical reactions start to produce carbon dioxide and water in relevant amounts.3
- Development. The time from first crack to the end of the roast is called development time.2 The bean is now particularly sensitive to heat, and browning moves from the surface to the centre.4 A few seconds can separate the desired roast degree from an over-roasted product.1
- Second crack. If the roast continues, a second, snapping crack can occur when the bean becomes very dark.5 Industrially roasted coffee is generally taken out between first and second crack.5
- Drop and cooling. The beans leave the roaster (the “drop”) and are cooled quickly with cold air or a water spray, to stop browning and aroma loss.1,6 Spraying a measured amount of water onto the beans is called water quenching; it is optional, but helps keep the roast degree consistent from batch to batch.1
In a development-time study on a 1 kg drum roaster, first crack came at about 570 s.4 Across seven studies on a 1 kg drum and a 15 kg roaster, the sample table of a multi-study paper lists first crack between 6:36 and 10:07 min (its text gives 7:21–10:07 min).2 At a medium roast colour (Agtron 76), the drum roasts of the development-time study were ended at 191.1–204.1 °C, depending on development time; the paper does not say where this temperature was measured.4
How heat reaches the bean#
In any hot-air roaster, heat reaches the beans by convection, conduction and radiation at the same time.1 Convection carries heat from the hot air to the bean surface; conduction carries it from hot walls and from bean to bean.1,5 How much radiation contributes is disputed (see Contested).1,12
Hot-air roasting is still the only technology in wide industrial use.1 The main roaster types differ in how they keep the beans moving:
- Drum roaster. The beans tumble in a horizontal rotating drum, through which hot air flows.1,5 It is the most widespread batch design. With direct heating, the drum wall gets hot and conduction becomes substantial.1
- Fluid-bed roaster. There are no moving parts; hot air blown up through a perforated plate keeps the beans suspended. Convection is the main way heat is transferred.1,5
- Paddle (tangential) and bowl roasters. A fixed chamber with rotating paddles, or a rotating bowl in which centrifugal force carries the beans to the rim and fixed baffles return them to the centre in a spiral.1
The amount of hot air per kilogram of green coffee is the air-to-bean ratio. The same heat can be delivered with less, hotter air or more, cooler air.1 Drum roasters usually run at a low ratio; fluid beds need high air speeds to lift the beans.1
Roast degree and roast time#
Roasters steer two things: how far the roast goes (degree, measured as colour) and how long it takes. Roasting times in the scientific literature range from about 4 to almost 15 minutes; commodity coffee is sometimes “flash roasted” in 1–3 minutes.2
Data table
| min | Source | |
|---|---|---|
| Flash roasting (commodity) | 1–3 min | 2 |
| Scientific literature | about 4 to almost 15 min | 2 |
| Classic roasting | 12–15 min | 6 |
| Eight sensory studies (1 kg drum; 15 kg convection) | 7:40–20:20 min | 2 |
| Development-time study (1 kg drum) | first crack ≈570 s + 90–390 s | 4 |
| Laboratory fluid bed | 170 s (260 °C air) and 720 s (228 °C air) | 3 |
Colour comes first. A 2020 paper combined eight sensory studies. In the two that varied both colour and time, both affected flavour, but colour was the stronger predictor.2 Darker roasts and longer roasts pushed flavour the same way: more bitterness, less acidity, fruitiness and sweetness.2 In the one study that also varied total roast time, total time on its own was not correlated with any flavour attribute.2
Time still matters at the same colour. In a regression across seven of the studies, with colour held constant, development time had a larger effect on flavour than the time to first crack.2 In a follow-up study at one colour, a short development gave a fruitier, sweeter, more acidic cup; a long one shifted it towards roasty, nutty and bitter.4
Data table
| mean |r| | Source | |
|---|---|---|
| Study 1 · Roast colour | 0.40 (p < 0.001) | 2 |
| Study 1 · Development time | 0.21 (p < 0.01) | 2 |
| Study 1 · Time to first crack | 0.09 (n.s.) | 2 |
| Study 1 · Total roast time | 0.07 (n.s.) | 2 |
| Study 2 · Roast colour | 0.46 (p < 0.001) | 2 |
| Study 2 · Development time | 0.07 (n.s.) | 2 |
Fast and slow roasts differ physically. At equal colour, fast-roasted beans expand more, and have greater volume and porosity and lower density than slow-roasted beans.1,14 They also show a stronger tendency for oil to sweat to the surface.1 Whether they also form more gas is not settled (see Contested).
Reference values#
The table collects values reported in the sources. They depend on the coffee, the roaster and the profile; they are not targets.
| Parameter | Value reported | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Green coffee moisture before roasting | About 10–12% (wb); 12% in a model; 10% and 8.3% in two studies | Schenker & Rothgeb1, Fadai et al.5, Alstrup et al.4, Geiger et al.3 |
| Moisture after roasting | 1–2.5%; about 2% | Münchow et al.2, Fadai et al.5 |
| Roast loss | 15–22%; 14–23% | Münchow et al.2, Bicho et al.6 |
| Roast loss, one fluid-bed study (L* 22–23) | 15.38% (fast, 170 s); 15.86% (slow, 720 s) | Geiger et al.3 |
| Silverskin lost | About 1 g per 100 g green coffee | Geiger et al.3 |
| Volume gain | About +50% to almost +100% | Münchow et al.2 |
| Browning begins | Above 100 °C | Bicho et al.6 |
| Gas release and swelling begin | Around 150 °C | Bicho et al.6 |
| First crack (bean cracking) | 180–200 °C | Bicho et al.6 |
| Reaction CO₂ and water start | 180–200 °C (bean core) | Geiger et al.3 |
| End-of-roast temperature | Bean temperature around and often above 200 °C; 191.1–204.1 °C at Agtron 76 in one drum study (measuring point not stated) | Münchow et al.2, Alstrup et al.4 |
| Roast time, research | About 4 to almost 15 min; flash roasting 1–3 min | Münchow et al.2 |
| Correlation with flavour attributes (mean absolute r) | Study 1: colour 0.40, development time 0.21, time to first crack 0.09 (n.s.), total time 0.07 (n.s.); Study 2: colour 0.46, development time 0.07 (n.s.) | Münchow et al.2 |
| Roast time, eight studies (1 kg drum; one 15 kg roaster) | 7:40–20:20 min total; development 1:20–6:45 min (0:10 in one excluded study) | Münchow et al.2 |
| Roast time, classic roasting | 12–15 min | Bicho et al.6 |
| Roast time, development-time study (1 kg drum) | First crack ≈570 s; development 90–390 s (≈11–16 min total) | Alstrup et al.4 |
| Roast time, laboratory fluid bed | 170 s at 260 °C air; 720 s at 228 °C air | Geiger et al.3 |
| Water evaporated during roasting (fluid bed) | 10.2 g (fast); 11.4 g (slow) per 100 g green coffee | Geiger et al.3 |
| CO₂ released during roasting | 0.4–0.5 g per 100 g green coffee | Geiger et al.3 |
| CO₂ released in 63 days of storage | 0.83–0.99 g per 100 g green coffee | Geiger et al.3 |
| CO₂, roasting, cooling and 63 days of storage | 1.49 g (fast, including 0.1 g estimated for cooling); 1.33 g (slow) per 100 g green coffee (sum of the study’s values) | Geiger et al.3 |
| Share of evaporated water formed by reactions | 41% (fast); 36% (slow) | Geiger et al.3 |
| Colour range in specialty practice | Agtron 46–99 studied; very light roasts up to 120 common in specialty | Münchow et al.2 |
Heat and mass transfer#
Roasting is a coupled heat and mass transfer problem: heat goes in, water and gas come out. A 2017 model of a single bean predicts a sharp drying front that divides the bean into a dry outer region and a moist core, and moves inward as the roast goes on.5 The front matters because the speed of the flavour reactions depends on how much water is available, and some slow down below a critical moisture.1
Very fast roasting can create a steep temperature gradient from surface to core. In extreme cases the outside is over-roasted while the core stays under-roasted, giving “burnt” and “greenish” notes at the same time.1
Measuring temperature. Real bean surface or core temperature is hard to measure.1 Laboratory studies have used fine thermocouples inserted into drilled beans.3 Production roasters use a probe in the bean mass that also touches hot air, so it reads a mix of bean surface and air temperature. The reading is specific to the machine and hard to compare between roasters.1
Water and gas#
Water leaves the bean in two forms. The first is the water the green bean brought in. The second is water formed by chemical reactions.1,3 In a fluid-bed study, reaction water made up 41% of the evaporated water in a fast roast and 36% in a slow one; after about 300 s of the slow roast, almost all the water still leaving came from reactions.3
Carbon dioxide and reaction water come from Strecker degradation, the breakdown of chlorogenic acids and sucrose, decarboxylation of amino acids and the Maillard reaction.3 Below a bean core temperature of 180–200 °C, the same study saw no significant rise in either.3
Data table
| Point | g per 100 g green coffee | Source | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Water evaporated during roasting | HTST 10.2 | 10.2 | 3 |
| Water evaporated during roasting | LTLT 11.4 | 11.4 | 3 |
| CO₂ released during roasting | HTST 0.4 | 0.4 | 3 |
| CO₂ released during roasting | LTLT 0.50 | 0.5 | 3 |
| Silverskin (chaff) | 1.0 (both) | 1 | 3 |
| CO₂ released in 63 days of storage | HTST 0.99 | 0.99 | 3 |
| CO₂ released in 63 days of storage | LTLT 0.83 | 0.83 | 3 |
| Roast loss, weighed | HTST 15.38 | 15.38 | 3 |
| Roast loss, weighed | LTLT 15.86 | 15.86 | 3 |
The fast roast released less carbon dioxide in the roaster but more in storage. Over roasting, cooling and 63 days of storage, the fast roast’s measured total was slightly higher; assuming that release had levelled off by day 63, the authors read the totals as almost equal, which suggests that total CO₂ depends on roast degree rather than roasting temperature.3 Gas measurements and silverskin together explained about 93% (slow) and 96% (fast) of the measured roast loss, taking the spread of the data into account (on the table’s mean values about 82% and 86%, our calculation); the rest is attributed to abrasion, other gases and measurement uncertainty.3
The trapped gas builds up pressure inside the cells. The thick cell walls stretch rather than break; small breakdowns release gas in sudden bursts that are heard as cracking and popping.1 Estimates of the pressure differ (see Contested).1,9
Endothermic to exothermic#
Early in the roast, a lot of energy is needed to evaporate water and start reactions: the roast is endothermic.1,2 Later, it becomes progressively more exothermic and needs much less heat input.2 At that point the beans generate heat of their own, the process speeds up and approaches the conditions of combustion; if it is not stopped in time, the beans can catch fire.1 Where exactly the switch happens is not agreed (see Contested).
Glass, rubber and pores#
The cell walls are built from polysaccharides that can be glassy (rigid) or rubbery (soft), depending on moisture and temperature.1 In principle the bean passes from glassy to rubbery and back to glassy during the roast. It expands while rubbery, when the walls resist less.1 An SCA handbook places this glass transition around first crack, with cells inflated by carbon dioxide.10
Swelling is continuous, not a sudden popcorn-like burst. Gas pressure drives it and the thick cell walls hold against it.1 Inside the cells, the cytoplasm is pushed to the walls and a large gas-filled void opens in the centre.1 Because the state of the walls depends on temperature and moisture, the roast profile decides how far the bean expands.1 At the same degree of roast, beans roasted at high temperature had greater volume, more pore volume and larger micropores in the cell walls than beans roasted at low temperature.13,14
Structure has consequences after roasting. The pores hold much of the carbon dioxide, which is released slowly during storage.1,10 Gas pressure also pushes coffee oil through micro-channels to the surface, faster in dark roasts.1
What changes chemically#
Most coffee flavour forms through non-enzymatic browning – the Maillard reaction between sugars and amino acids, and caramelisation.2 Strecker degradation runs alongside the Maillard reaction: amino acids become aldehydes, and carbon dioxide is a by-product.10 Almost all free sugars are lost during roasting, giving water, carbon dioxide, colour, aroma and taste.8 Earlier studies, as summarised in a development-time paper, found that roasting degrades sucrose by up to 99%, depending on the roast profile.4
Sucrose is also the principal green-bean precursor of four aliphatic acids formed during roasting: formic, acetic, glycolic and lactic.7 In the development-time study, malic, citric and formic acids were highest in the roast with the shortest development, and the acids measured generally declined as development time was prolonged.4 Overall, perceived acidity falls as the roast gets darker.1
Chlorogenic acids are strongly degraded.1 Their fragments, together with melanoidins from browning, are the main sources of bitterness.2 Caffeine is heat-stable and hardly affected by roasting.2 Most aroma compounds, such as most pyrazines, decay again at high temperature late in the roast, while a few, such as guaiacol, keep forming.1
Risks and defects#
- Over-roasting. In the exothermic final stage, according to a roasting textbook chapter, a few seconds decide the roast degree.1
- Scorching and uneven roasts. Very fast heating can over-roast the surface while the core stays under-roasted.1 Too high a drum speed can press the beans against the hot drum wall and, at worst, scorch the flat sides.1
- Baked and underdeveloped. “Baked” describes a roast in which the time after first crack is stretched with little or no rise in temperature.4 In a defect study, the baked roast and an underdeveloped one (charged into air at only 135 °C) were compared with a normal roast; consumers significantly preferred the normal roast over all other roasts except the baked one.15 Longer development time was linked to more “roasted bread” flavour.2
- Over-quenching. Too much quench water is absorbed by the beans. It raises the final moisture and water activity, which speeds up staling.1
Open questions#
- Second crack. The sources opened describe it but do not settle its mechanism. An SCA handbook explains it as renewed pressure build-up once the bean has become brittle10; no peer-reviewed measurement of the mechanism was found.
- Development time. It is defined from first crack, which is timed by ear – the moment a popping sound is first heard.2 The main evidence comes from washed Arabica on two roaster types; whether it holds for natural coffees and other roasters is untested.2
- Onset of the exothermic phase and the share of radiation in heat transfer (see Contested).
- Body. In the multi-study analysis, roasting phases had no meaningful effect on body, against a common belief in the industry.2
Key studies#
Münchow et al., 2020 – Colour versus time. Pools eight descriptive sensory studies of washed Arabica roasted on a 1 kg drum roaster and a 15 kg roaster. In the two studies that varied both, roast colour predicted flavour better than timing; across seven studies at constant colour, development time had more effect than the time to first crack. In the one study that varied it, total time alone showed no correlation with flavour.
Alstrup et al., 2020 – Development time at one colour. Four roasts of one Colombian coffee to the same colour, differing only after first crack (90–390 s). Sensory panels, GC–MS and NMR all separated the samples: short development read fruitier and more acidic, long development more roasty and bitter.
Geiger et al., 2005 – Carbon dioxide and water during roasting. Measures CO₂ and water vapour in the exhaust of a laboratory fluid bed in real time, for a fast and a slow roast to the same colour. Reaction gases start at 180–200 °C, and total CO₂ over roasting and storage depends on roast degree rather than temperature.
Schenker et al., 2000 – Pore structure. Roasts beans in two hot-air processes to the same degree of roast and compares their structure. High-temperature roasting gave larger volume, more pore volume and larger micropores in the cell walls.
Giacalone et al., 2019 – Roasting defects. Roasts one Arabica to a normal profile and five defect profiles (dark, light, scorched, baked, underdeveloped) and studies them by GC–MS, trained panel and consumers. The normal roast had a balanced profile and was preferred by consumers over every other roast except the baked one.
- Fast versus slow roasting and gas: a roasting textbook chapter and a fluid-bed study report that fast-roasted beans form more gas at equal colour1,14; in a fluid-bed study that measured roasting and 63 days of storage, the fast roast’s total was slightly higher, but the authors read the totals as almost equal and tied total CO₂ to roast degree rather than roasting temperature.3
- When the roast turns exothermic: a heat-transfer model places the start of exothermic reactions such as the Maillard reaction at nearly 200 °C5; a 2025 model study cites a value above 150 °C12; a doctoral thesis lists earlier literature values that disagree with one another13; and a roasting textbook chapter ties the switch to first crack.1
- How much heat radiation contributes: a textbook chapter calls its contribution in hot-air roasters "usually very limited and negligible"1, while a 2025 study of single beans in a gas-fired rotating drum concluded that radiation governs heat transfer to the bean, inferred from a fitted overall heat-transfer coefficient well above the calculated convective one.12
- Gas pressure inside the bean: a textbook chapter, based on gas measurements and model calculations1, and an industry author9 give different estimates. Neither is a direct pressure measurement, and no peer-reviewed value was found, so no figure is given here.
- Fast or slow roasting and fruitiness: a roasting textbook chapter says slow-roasted coffees often show more "fruity" and "balanced" notes, and fast-roasted coffee more acidity1; in a multi-study sensory analysis, longer roasting times and development times went with less fruitiness and acidity2, and in a development-time study the shortest development gave the fruitiest cup.4
Coffearium (2026). Roasting. Coffearium – The open coffee compendium. Retrieved 22 October 2026, from https://coffearium.org/entries/roasting/
@misc{coffearium2026-roasting,
author = {{Coffearium}},
title = {{Roasting}},
year = {2026},
howpublished = {Coffearium -- The open coffee compendium},
url = {https://coffearium.org/entries/roasting/},
urldate = {2026-10-22},
note = {Retrieved 22 October 2026}
}Entries are updated when the evidence changes; the retrieval date tells your readers which version you used. Changes are listed in the Change log.
Change log
- – Six wording fixes. The 15 kg roaster in the 2020 sensory studies is no longer called a convection roaster. The over-roasting point no longer mentions fire. The second-crack note no longer says "brittle again". Colour is "the best indicator" according to a textbook chapter (was "the best single indicator"). The fall of moisture from about 12% to 2% is placed over the whole roast, not the drying phase alone. Reason: Cross-checks during verification of the new roast-step entries: Münchow et al. 2020 name a 15 kg roaster without calling it a convection roaster; the fire statement rested on one Tier B chapter, while safety claims need an authority; the SCA handbook does not say "again"; the textbook chapter says "the best indicator"; moisture keeps falling after drying (drying-phase entry).
Sources
- BSchenker, S.; Rothgeb, T. (2017). The Roast – Creating the Beans' Signature. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 11, pp. 245–271. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00011-6 · other copies
- AMünchow, M.; Alstrup, J.; Steen, I.; Giacalone, D. (2020). Roasting Conditions and Coffee Flavor: A Multi-Study Empirical Investigation. Beverages 6(2), 29. doi:10.3390/beverages6020029 · other copies
- AGeiger, R.; Perren, R.; Kuenzli, R.; Escher, F. (2005). Carbon Dioxide Evolution and Moisture Evaporation During Roasting of Coffee Beans. Journal of Food Science 70(2), E124–E130. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb07084.x · other copies
- AAlstrup, J.; Petersen, M. A.; Larsen, F. H.; Münchow, M. (2020). The Effect of Roast Development Time Modulations on the Sensory Profile and Chemical Composition of the Coffee Brew as Measured by NMR and DHS-GC–MS. Beverages 6(4), 70. doi:10.3390/beverages6040070 · other copies
- AFadai, N. T.; Melrose, J.; Please, C. P.; Schulman, A.; Van Gorder, R. A. (2017). A heat and mass transfer study of coffee bean roasting. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 104, 787–799. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.08.083 · other copies
- ABicho, N. C.; Leitão, A. E.; Ramalho, J. C.; Lidon, F. C. (2012). Use of colour parameters for roasted coffee assessment. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 32(3), 436–442. doi:10.1590/S0101-20612012005000068 · other copies
- AGinz, M.; Balzer, H. H.; Bradbury, A. G. W.; Maier, H. G. (2000). Formation of aliphatic acids by carbohydrate degradation during roasting of coffee. European Food Research and Technology 211(6), 404–410. doi:10.1007/s002170000215 · other copies
- BPoisson, L.; Blank, I.; Dunkel, A.; Hofmann, T. (2017). The Chemistry of Roasting – Decoding Flavor Formation. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 12, pp. 273–309. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00012-8 · other copies
- BIlly, E. (2002). The Complexity of Coffee. Scientific American (June 2002).
- BSmrke, S.; Sage, E.; Wellinger, M.; Yeretzian, C. (2018). The Coffee Freshness Handbook (ISBN 978-0-9995807-2-1). Specialty Coffee Association, Santa Ana.
- AAlonso-Torres, B.; Hernández-Pérez, J. A.; Sierra-Espinoza, F.; Schenker, S.; Yeretzian, C. (2013). Modeling and Validation of Heat and Mass Transfer in Individual Coffee Beans during the Coffee Roasting Process Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). CHIMIA 67(4), 291–294. doi:10.2533/chimia.2013.291 · other copies
- ABustos-Vanegas, J. D.; Martins, M. A.; Corrêa, P. C.; Baptestini, F. M.; de Oliveira, G. H. H. (2025). Modeling and simulation of coffee bean heating during roasting: effect of heat generation. Frontiers in Food Science and Technology 5, 1603783. doi:10.3389/frfst.2025.1603783 · other copies
- BSchenker, S. (2000). Investigations on the Hot Air Roasting of Coffee Beans (Diss. ETH No. 13620). ETH Zürich (doctoral thesis).
- ASchenker, S.; Handschin, S.; Frey, B.; Perren, R.; Escher, F. (2000). Pore structure of coffee beans affected by roasting conditions. Journal of Food Science 65(3), 452–457. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb16026.x · other copies
- AGiacalone, D.; Degn, T. K.; Yang, N.; Liu, C.; Fisk, I.; Münchow, M. (2019). Common roasting defects in coffee: Aroma composition, sensory characterization and consumer perception. Food Quality and Preference 71, 463–474. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.03.009 · other copies
Tier A · authoritative · B · trade and expert · C · general. Supporting quotes for every source are in the data version of this entry. If a publisher’s site refuses access, try the doi link or “other copies”.
Discussion
A space for readers to share experience from the farm, the roastery or the bar, ask each other and offer other views. The Coffearium team does not reply here. Please keep to the community rules; to change the entry itself, use Suggest a change.