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Roasting · Step 6

Second crack

The second, snapping series of cracks heard when a roast is taken dark – what breaks in the bean, why oil reaches the surface, how flavour and chemistry change, and the smoke and gas that come with it.

Across the chain: Science

Source-checkedby Coffearium verification pass· Last source-checked 17 Oct 2026· Prepared with AI assistance· 17 sources (9 tier A)· 2 contested· Updated 17 Oct 2026
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Contents
  • Second crack is a later, quieter and faster series of cracks than first crack, heard only when the roast continues until the beans are dark.2,7
  • An SCA handbook explains it as gas pressure cracking the bean again once its structure has turned brittle; no peer-reviewed measurement of the mechanism was found.3,6
  • Gas pressure pushes coffee oil through the cell walls to the surface; this runs faster in dark roasts, which is why they look oily.1,5
  • By second crack, titratable acidity had fallen back to its green-coffee value in one study; smoky, burnt and bitter notes rise in darker roasts.4,8
  • Roasting past second crack typically involves charring and much smoke; roasting and roasted coffee also release carbon monoxide.4,13,14

What second crack is#

Second crack is a second series of cracking sounds late in a roast. It comes after first crack and the development time that follows it.2,6 It happens only if the roast continues until the beans are dark.2 Industrially roasted coffee is generally taken out of the roaster between first and second crack.2

Roasters use second crack as a landmark. According to a 2019 thesis, its start marks the transition to a dark roast.6 Coffee roasted past second crack is considered burnt.2,6 Even dark roasts typically end somewhere in the middle of second crack.6

This is the sixth step in the roast. Previous step: development time.

What breaks inside the bean#

During roasting, the bean forms gas, mostly carbon dioxide (CO₂), together with water vapour.1,3 The pressure makes the bean swell and, at first crack, crack for the first time.3 Late in the roast, gas formation rises steeply.3

The SCA freshness handbook explains second crack as follows. The bean has turned brittle, the gas cannot escape, and the pressure cracks the structure a second time, releasing more CO₂.3 A roasting textbook chapter describes the same kind of event: small structural breakdowns that release gas in sudden bursts, heard as cracking and popping.1

The cause is not settled. A 2019 thesis calls it uncertain and names two possibilities: gas pressure, or fracturing of the cell matrix itself.6 No peer-reviewed measurement of the mechanism was found for this entry (see Contested).

How it sounds#

First crack sounds like popcorn popping; second crack is a snapping sound.1,2 A news release on a 2014 acoustics study compares second crack with the crackle of puffed rice cereal.7

Two recording studies, reported in a news release and a thesis, found two differences. First crack was louder, and the cracks of second crack followed each other at a higher rate.6,7 In the 2019 thesis, second crack also had more pops.6 Whether second crack is higher in pitch differs between studies (see Contested).

Temperature: what is and is not known#

No peer-reviewed study opened for this entry reports the bean temperature at which second crack starts. The peer-reviewed sources describe it only by sound and bean colour.2,4 A practitioner glossary gives a temperature for it, without naming the probe or roaster, so it is not repeated here.17

Any temperature would carry the usual probe caveat. According to a roasting textbook chapter, a roaster’s probe reads a mix of bean surface and hot air, specific to the machine, so readings from different roasters cannot be compared directly.1 The roast profiles entry explains why.

What can be compared is time. In one study on a 5 kg drum, second crack was heard 2.0–6.0 min after first crack, depending on the profile and coffee.4

01234567minFilled: first to second crack · open: after second crackAfrican washed · faststart3.5 · 44 African washed · slowstart3.54 14 African washed · medium3 · 3.54 African washed ·production4.54 24 African washed ·exaggerated flick64 1.54 African washed · negativeRoR5 · 44 African washed · extendedMaillard2 · 24 Central American honey ·fast start34 4.54 Central American honey ·slow start2.5 · 1.54 Central American honey ·extended Maillard34 14 Indonesian washed · faststart2.54 4.54 Indonesian washed · slowstart2.54 14 Indonesian washed ·extended Maillard34 14
Data table
PointminSource
African washed · fast start3.53.54
African washed · fast start444
African washed · slow start3.53.54
African washed · slow start114
African washed · medium334
African washed · medium3.53.54
African washed · production4.54.54
African washed · production224
African washed · exaggerated flick664
African washed · exaggerated flick1.51.54
African washed · negative RoR554
African washed · negative RoR444
African washed · extended Maillard224
African washed · extended Maillard224
Central American honey · fast start334
Central American honey · fast start4.54.54
Central American honey · slow start2.52.54
Central American honey · slow start1.51.54
Central American honey · extended Maillard334
Central American honey · extended Maillard114
Indonesian washed · fast start2.52.54
Indonesian washed · fast start4.54.54
Indonesian washed · slow start2.52.54
Indonesian washed · slow start114
Indonesian washed · extended Maillard334
Indonesian washed · extended Maillard114
Time from first to second crack, and from the end of second crack to the drop. 13 profiles of three coffees, each roasted three times for 16 min, 5 kg drum.4

Oil on the surface#

According to a roasting textbook chapter, coffee oil sits in small oil bodies along the cell walls of the green bean.1 Roasting breaks these up and frees the oil.1 Gas pressure inside the bean then pushes it through tiny channels in the cell walls to the surface.1

The oil first appears as many small droplets. These can join and cover the whole bean with a shiny film.1 Oil migration runs faster in dark roasts, because the driving force is stronger.1,11 A colour study notes that the outer layer of the beans becomes more oily as roast intensity rises.5

Timing differs with roast degree. In extremely dark roasts, oil may already appear in the last stages of roasting.1 A 2019 thesis notes that beans often turn oily soon after second crack starts.6 Otherwise the oil reaches the surface during storage, as the gas leaves the beans.1,11

A · At second crack124356B · After roasting78

A · At second crack

  1. Gas-filled cells. Gas from the roast reactions builds pressure inside the bean.3
  2. Brittle structure. Late in the roast the bean is brittle, and gas cannot escape.3
  3. Mobilised oil. Roasting breaks up the oil bodies along the cell walls and frees the oil.1
  4. Crack and gas burst. Pressure cracks the structure again and more carbon dioxide escapes.3 The mechanism is not settled.6
  5. Oil to the surface. Gas pressure pushes oil through tiny channels in the cell walls; small droplets form, sooner in dark roasts.1,11
  6. Smoke. Roasting past second crack typically brings charring and much smoke.4

B · After roasting

  1. Oil film. The droplets can join into a shiny film over the whole bean.1
  2. Gas still leaving. Darker roasts release more gas, and faster.12 Oil migration and gas release are linked.3
A dark-roasted bean cut across: at second crack (A) and after roasting (B). No sizes or values are implied. Schematic, not to scale.

Flavour and chemistry#

Acidity falls as the roast goes on. In a 5 kg drum, titratable acidity peaked during first crack and had fallen back to its green-coffee value by second crack.4 The acids in coffee entry covers which acids form and break down.

Perceived bitterness rises with roast degree, according to a roasting textbook chapter.1 In one sensory study, a dark roast was rated more bitter than a normal one.8 The textbook chapter attributes a lingering harsh bitterness in dark roasts to phenylindanes, breakdown products of chlorogenic acid lactones.1

Smoky, woody and ashy notes come from volatile phenols called guaiacols.9 They can form when breakdown products of chlorogenic acids degrade further.9 According to the roasting textbook chapter, most important aroma compounds, such as most pyrazines, decay late in the roast, while a few, such as guaiacol, keep forming.1

The same chapter says that in a roast continued into second crack, sugar caramelisation stops and roasted notes are added instead.1 The browning chemistry behind these changes is covered under the Maillard reaction.

Dark roast names#

According to a roasting textbook chapter, baristas use names such as “French roast”, while industrial roasters and scientists prefer to measure colour.1 The roast degree and colour entry shows how loosely names map to numbers.

Second crack is the reference point for several names. In practitioner usage, “Vienna” names a roast at the beginning of second crack.17 A coffee history chapter describes “French roast” as a high roast.16 The SCA freshness handbook equates a dark roast in one of its studies with an “Italian espresso roast”.3

Reference values#

Values reported in the sources. They describe particular coffees, roasters and methods; they are not targets.

Parameter Value reported Source
How second crack is identified By ear: the second round of popping sounds Anokye-Bempah et al.4
First crack to second crack 2.0–6.0 min across 13 profiles of three coffees (each roasted three times; 16 min roasts, 5 kg drum) Anokye-Bempah et al.4
Mean rate of rise, first to second crack 2.13–5.52 °C per 30 s, same profiles Anokye-Bempah et al.4
End of second crack to drop 1.0–4.5 min, same profiles Anokye-Bempah et al.4
Titratable acidity at second crack 2.5–2.8 mL NaOH per 40 mL brew (three profiles, African washed coffee); green coffee 2.2 ± 0.3 Anokye-Bempah et al.4
Bean temperature at second crack Not established in the peer-reviewed sources found –
Acoustics, first versus second crack First crack louder; second crack cracks at a higher rate News release on Wilson 20147; Yergenson6
Dark roast defect versus normal roast (one arabica coffee) Air at charge 220 versus 210 °C; development 4:45 versus 2:40 min; total 13:45 versus 11:25 min; Agtron 45.7 versus 74.4 Giacalone et al.8
Carbon monoxide at roasters (one facility) 3.1–14.5 ppm (real-time, at the roasters); two of three roaster operators with maxima of 203 and 267 ppm NIOSH14
Carbon monoxide limits (US) NIOSH REL 35 ppm (TWA), ceiling 200 ppm; OSHA PEL 50 ppm NIOSH14

Physics of the second crack#

Pressure in a brittle bean. The SCA handbook ties first crack to pressure from water vapour and CO₂ and a glass transition around that time, when the cell material softens and the cells inflate.3 Later, gas formation increases exponentially; the bean turns brittle, the gas can no longer escape, and continued roasting cracks the structure again.3 In the roasting textbook chapter, the thick cell walls stretch rather than break, and only minor structural breakdowns release gas in microbursts, heard as cracking.1

What is missing. Neither account rests on a direct measurement of second crack. A 2019 thesis lists CO₂ pressure and fracturing of the cell matrix as candidate causes.6 Even for first crack, a 2017 heat and mass transfer study states that no detailed physical explanation has been found.2 Estimates of the gas pressure inside the bean disagree; the roasting overview gives the details.

Structure and pyrolysis. Structural carbohydrates of the intercellular matrix are degraded, partly by pyrolysis.2 According to the SCA handbook, pyrolysis forms CO₂ during the late, high-temperature stages, and CO₂ from pyrolysis appears only in darker roasts.3 According to the textbook chapter, the darker the roast, the more volume and porosity the bean develops, although swelling levels off at some point.1

Heat release. According to the textbook chapter, at some point in the roast, the reactions become exothermic and the beans generate heat of their own.1 The chapter adds that the final stages approach the conditions of a combustion process, and a few seconds separate the intended roast degree from an over-roasted product.1 Where the switch to exothermic happens is disputed (see the roasting overview).

Acoustics#

What was measured. The news release on a 2014 study reports that first crack had higher acoustic amplitudes than second crack, and that the cracks in second crack came at a higher rate.7 A 2019 thesis using an air roaster confirmed both: a higher amplitude for first crack and a higher rate for second crack.6 The number of pops rose with roasting temperature for both cracks.6

Where results differ. The thesis found the peak frequencies of both cracks in one band, unlike earlier work it cites, where second crack was much higher in frequency.6 Frequency results thus differ between studies (see Contested). The first crack entry compares the published recordings, including a much larger gas-heated roaster with the opposite pattern.

Use in practice. The same thesis used the cracks as reference points: it predicted the start and end of first and second crack from in-line near-infrared spectra, and the model for the start of second crack fitted best; the model for its end did not meet the thesis’s minimum for quantification.6

Chemistry near and after second crack#

Acids. Titratable acidity rose from the start of the roast, peaked during first crack and had decayed to its initial value by second crack, in every profile tested.4 At second crack, three profiles of the African washed coffee measured 2.5–2.8 mL NaOH per 40 mL, against 2.2 ± 0.3 mL for the green coffee.4 In a defect study, the dark roast was rated less acidic than the normal one; the authors attribute this to further acid breakdown during the longer roast.8

Phenols. Chlorogenic acids break down to quinic acid and hydroxycinnamic acids, which can degrade further to volatile and non-volatile phenols.9 A 2003 real-time study followed 4-vinylguaiacol, guaiacol and phenol during roasting. It proposed two connected reaction channels; according to its abstract, a second channel opens only at higher bean temperatures and forms guaiacol and then phenol.10 The defect study reports that the dark roast had more of the phenolic compounds 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol and phenol than the normal roast.8 Robusta has more of these odorants than arabica, because it has more chlorogenic acids.9

Bitterness. According to the roasting textbook chapter, caffeine contributes only part of coffee’s bitterness; most bitter compounds form during roasting.1 Chlorogenic acid lactones are among the main contributors, and phenylindanes, formed from them, give dark roasts a lingering harsh bitterness.1 What happens to caffeine itself in dark roasts is covered under caffeine and roast degree.

Sensory profile of a dark roast. In the 2019 defect study, one arabica coffee was roasted to a normal profile and to a dark one that ran about 2 min longer.8 A trained panel rated the dark roast significantly more burnt, bitter and tobacco-like, and less citrus, sweet, acidic in the aftertaste and complex.8 The paper does not state whether the dark roast reached second crack.

03691215mean rating, 15 cm line scaleOpen: normal (Agtron 74.4) · filled: dark (Agtron 45.7)Burnt9.18 128 Bitter9.68 12.28 Burnt (aftertaste)7.88 12.28 Tobacco8.2 · 108 Citrus5.78 1.98 Acidic (aftertaste)10.38 5.78 Sweet3.8 · 2.38 Complexity8.8 · 6.58
Data table
Pointmean rating, 15 cm line scaleSource
Burnt9.19.18
Burnt12128
Bitter9.69.68
Bitter12.212.28
Burnt (aftertaste)7.87.88
Burnt (aftertaste)12.212.28
Tobacco8.28.28
Tobacco10108
Citrus5.75.78
Citrus1.91.98
Acidic (aftertaste)10.310.38
Acidic (aftertaste)5.75.78
Sweet3.83.88
Sweet2.32.38
Complexity8.88.88
Complexity6.56.58
Mean trained-panel ratings for a normal roast (Agtron 74.4) and a dark roast (Agtron 45.7) of the same arabica coffee; the attributes shown differed significantly between the two.8

Smoke and carbon monoxide#

This section describes what authorities and studies report. It does not give safety advice.

Smoke. A 2024 study calls the phase after second crack “post second crack” and notes that it typically involves charring and blackening of the beans and much smoke production.4 The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, organic acids and combustion products among the emissions of coffee roasting; the roaster is the main source of gaseous pollutants.15 Gaseous roaster emissions are typically ducted to a thermal or thermal catalytic oxidiser.15

Carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is produced by reactions during roasting itself, and natural gas-fired roasters are also expected to emit it.14,15 In a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) evaluation of one roasting facility, carbon monoxide was higher when workers performed tasks near the roasters and grinders.14 Real-time levels at the roasters were 3.1–14.5 ppm, and two of three roaster operators had maxima of 203 and 267 ppm, above the NIOSH ceiling of 200 ppm.14 The NIOSH recommended exposure limit is 35 ppm and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit 50 ppm, both as time-weighted averages; none of the average area or personal levels in that evaluation exceeded them.14

After roasting. Roasted coffee keeps releasing carbon monoxide. In a 2019 study of commercial coffees, roast degree did not significantly change emissions from whole beans, but ground medium-dark and dark roasts emitted significantly more than medium and light ones.13 The degassing entry describes these measurements and the authorities’ recommendations in full.

How dark roasts age#

Dark roasts change faster after roasting. In a gravimetric study, darker roasts released more gas and released it faster.12 According to the SCA handbook, degassing is linked to the migration of coffee oils to the surface, and an oily surface exposed to oxygen forms stale and rancid off-flavours.3 The handbook also describes rancidity as the result of lipid degradation, chemical oxidation or pyrolysis of fats.3

The oil itself is a sign of age as well as of roast degree. In cryo-scanning electron micrographs reproduced in the textbook chapter, a bean surface was smooth just after roasting and covered with small oil droplets after one day of storage.1 In earlier work reviewed in a doctoral thesis, fast-roasted coffees showed more oil sweating, which was regarded as a sensory risk.11 Packaging and storage are covered under freshness and storage.

Risks and defects#

  • Over-roasting. Past second crack the beans typically char and blacken, with much smoke.4 Coffee roasted past second crack is considered burnt.2,6
  • Loss of origin character. Practitioners describe roast flavour beginning to cover the coffee’s own character at the start of second crack17; a textbook chapter says the roasted notes gained in second crack are not inherent in the coffee.1 Peer-reviewed sensory work shows dark roasts rated less complex and less citrus.8
  • Rancidity. Oily surfaces exposed to oxygen form rancid off-flavours.3

Open questions#

  • Mechanism. Whether second crack is driven by gas pressure, by fracture of a weakened cell matrix, or both, has not been measured in the sources found.3,6
  • Temperature. No peer-reviewed bean temperature for the onset of second crack was found; published research describes it by sound.4
  • Acoustic signature. Frequency results disagree between roasters and studies.6
  • Sensory studies at second crack. The dark-roast sensory data found do not state whether the roast reached second crack.8

Key studies#

Anokye-Bempah et al., 2024 – Acidity up to and past second crack. Sampled beans every minute of 16-minute roasts of three coffees on a 5 kg drum, with up to seven profiles (each roasted three times) that all ran past second crack. Titratable acidity peaked during first crack and was back at its starting value by second crack; the study also reports how long each phase lasted.

Scientific Reports 14, 8237 · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57256-y

Giacalone et al., 2019 – Roasting defects. Roasted one arabica coffee to a normal profile and five defect profiles, including a dark roast at Agtron 45.7, and studied them by GC–MS, trained panel and consumers. The dark roast carried more phenolic compounds and was rated more burnt and bitter, less acidic and less complex.

Food Quality and Preference 71, 463–474 · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.03.009

Dorfner et al., 2003 – Phenols in real time. Followed 4-vinylguaiacol, guaiacol and phenol in real time during roasting by laser ionisation mass spectrometry. Proposes two linked reaction channels, the second opening only at higher bean temperatures.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51(19), 5768–5773 · doi:10.1021/jf0341767

Wilson, 2014 – Coffee roasting acoustics. Recorded and analysed the cracking sounds of coffee during roasting. As reported in the publisher’s news release, first crack was louder and the cracks of second crack came at a higher rate.

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 135(6) · doi:10.1121/1.4874355

Smrke et al., 2018 – Gravimetric degassing. Weighed roasted coffee continuously at 35 °C: whole beans of one arabica coffee from El Salvador roasted to nine profiles, and ground arabica and robusta. For whole beans, roast degree had a stronger effect than roast speed; darker roasts released more gas, and faster.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 66(21), 5293–5300 · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.7b03310

Contested
  • What causes second crack: the Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) freshness handbook explains it as renewed gas pressure cracking the bean once it has turned brittle3; a 2019 thesis calls the cause uncertain, naming carbon dioxide pressure and fracturing of the cell matrix as possibilities.6 No peer-reviewed measurement of the mechanism was found.
  • Pitch of second crack: earlier recording work cited in a 2019 thesis reported second crack much higher in frequency than first crack6; the thesis itself, recording an air roaster, found the peak frequencies of both cracks in the same band and noted that this differs significantly from the earlier work.6 The first crack entry describes a third, opposite result on a much larger gas-heated roaster.
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Sources

  1. BSchenker, S.; Rothgeb, T. (2017). The Roast – Creating the Beans' Signature. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 11, pp. 245–271. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00011-6 · other copies
  2. AFadai, N. T.; Melrose, J.; Please, C. P.; Schulman, A.; Van Gorder, R. A. (2017). A heat and mass transfer study of coffee bean roasting. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 104, 787–799. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.08.083 · other copies
  3. BSmrke, S.; Sage, E.; Wellinger, M.; Yeretzian, C. (2018). The Coffee Freshness Handbook (ISBN 978-0-9995807-2-1). Specialty Coffee Association, Santa Ana.
  4. AAnokye-Bempah, L.; Styczynski, T.; de Andrade Teixeira Fernandes, N.; Gervay-Hague, J.; Ristenpart, W. D.; Donis-González, I. R. (2024). The effect of roast profiles on the dynamics of titratable acidity during coffee roasting. Scientific Reports 14, 8237. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-57256-y · other copies
  5. ABicho, N. C.; Leitão, A. E.; Ramalho, J. C.; Lidon, F. C. (2012). Use of colour parameters for roasted coffee assessment. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 32(3), 436–442. doi:10.1590/S0101-20612012005000068 · other copies
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  7. BAcoustical Society of America (2014). Coffee Bean Acoustics (news release on Wilson, P. S., Coffee roasting acoustics, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 2014). Newswise (news release).
  8. AGiacalone, D.; Degn, T. K.; Yang, N.; Liu, C.; Fisk, I.; Münchow, M. (2019). Common roasting defects in coffee: Aroma composition, sensory characterization and consumer perception. Food Quality and Preference 71, 463–474. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.03.009 · other copies
  9. BPoisson, L.; Blank, I.; Dunkel, A.; Hofmann, T. (2017). The Chemistry of Roasting – Decoding Flavor Formation. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 12, pp. 273–309. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803520-7.00012-8 · other copies
  10. ADorfner, R.; Ferge, T.; Kettrup, A.; Zimmermann, R.; Yeretzian, C. (2003). Real-time monitoring of 4-vinylguaiacol, guaiacol and phenol during coffee roasting by resonant laser ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51(19), 5768–5773. doi:10.1021/jf0341767 · other copies
  11. BSchenker, S. (2000). Investigations on the Hot Air Roasting of Coffee Beans (Diss. ETH No. 13620). ETH Zürich (doctoral thesis).
  12. ASmrke, S.; Wellinger, M.; Suzuki, T.; Balsiger, F.; Opitz, S. E. W.; Yeretzian, C. (2018). Time-Resolved Gravimetric Method To Assess Degassing of Roasted Coffee. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 66(21), 5293–5300. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.7b03310 · other copies
  13. ALeBouf, R. F.; Aldridge, M. (2019). Carbon monoxide emission rates from roasted whole bean and ground coffee. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 69(1), 89–96. doi:10.1080/10962247.2018.1515125 · other copies
  14. AHarvey, R. R.; Hawley, B.; Martin, S. B. (2018). Evaluation of exposures and respiratory health at a coffee roasting and packaging facility (Health Hazard Evaluation Report 2016-0144-3305). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), CDC, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
  15. AU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1995). AP-42, Fifth Edition, Section 9.13.2: Coffee Roasting. U.S. EPA, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
  16. BMorris, J. (2017). We Consumers – Tastes, Rituals, and Waves. In: Folmer, B. (ed.), The Craft and Science of Coffee, Academic Press, ch. 19.
  17. CSweet Maria's Vienna Roast (Coffee Library glossary). Sweet Maria's Coffee Library.

Tier A · authoritative · B · trade and expert · C · general. Supporting quotes for every source are in the data version of this entry. If a publisher’s site refuses access, try the doi link or “other copies”.

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